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PETITIONER: S.P. MITTAL ETC. ETC.

       Vs.

RESPONDENT: UNION OF INDIA AND OTHERS

DATE OF JUDGMENT08/11/1982

BENCH: MISRA, R.B. (J) BENCH: MISRA, R.B. (J) CHANDRACHUD, Y.V. ((CJ) BHAGWATI, P.N. REDDY, O. CHINNAPPA (J) ERADI, V. BALAKRISHNA (J)

CITATION:  1983 AIR    1            1983 SCR  (1) 729  1983 SCC  (1)  51        1982 SCALE  (2)1001  CITATOR INFO :  RF         1984 SC  51  (8A)  R          1987 SC 748  (19)  RF         1992 SC1277  (22)

ACT:      Right to  freedom of  religion and  to manage religious affairs-Constitution of  India, 1950 Articles 25 and 26-Shri Aurobindo’s teachings  cannot be  said to  be of a religious nature-Aurobindo Society  and the  Auroville township do not fall within  the meaning  of religious denomination so as to be violative of Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution.      Words & Phrases-’Religion’ and ’Religious denomination’ explained.      Auroville (Emergency  Provisions) Act, 1980 (Act LIX of 1980) Preamble-Parliamentary  competency to  enact the  Act- Whether inconsistent  and in conflict with the provisions of the West  Bengal Societies  Registration Act, 1961 (Act XXVI of 1961) Sections 22 & 23 containing in built self-contained provisions for dealing with the management of the registered societies-Constitution of  India 1950  Article 245, Schedule VII, List I Entry 32-Functions of the Lists, Explained.      Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Act 1980 providing for taking over  the management  only of  Auroville township and its activities  for a limited period is not violative either of Article  14, Articles  25 and 26 or Articles 29 and 30 of the Constitution.

HEADNOTE:      Sri Aurobindo, one of the Indian sages and philosphers, after a brilliant academic and administrative career engaged himself   for   sometime   in   political   activities   and revolutionary literary efforts, but later on gave them up to concentrate himself  with the  life of medition and integral yoga at  Pondicherry, in  Tamil Nadu.  Madam  M.  Alfassa  a French Lady,  who came  to be  known as  the Mother became a disciple of Sri Aurobindo. Very soon more and more disciples came to  join him from various parts of India and abroad and thus the Aurobindo Ashram came into being. The disciples and devoted followers  of Sri  Aurobindo and  the Mother, with a

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view to propagate and practise the ideals and beliefs of Sri Aurobindo formed  a Society  called Sri Aurobindo Society in the year  1960, which at all material times was and is still a society  duly registered  under the provisions of the West Bengal Societies Registration 730 Act,  1961.   This  Society   is  completely  distinct  from Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry. The Society was established and registered  for the  purpose of  carrying out in and out side India  the several  objects stated in the memorandum of the Society.      The management  of the  Society vested in its Executive Committee. Rules  and regulations  have been duly framed for the management  of the Society and also for safe custody and protection of its assets, properties and funds.      Sri  Aurobindo  Society  preaches  and  propagates  the ideals and  teachings of  Sri Aurobindo, inter alia, through its numerous  centres scattered  throughout India  by way of weekly meetings of its members.      The Mother as the founder-president also conceived of a project  of   setting  up   a  cultural  township  known  as ’Auroville’ where people of different countries are expected to engage  in cultural, educational and scientific and other pursuits aiming  at human  unity. The  Society  has  been  a channel of  funds for setting up the cultural township known as Auroville.      At the  initiative of  the  Government  of  India,  the United  Nations   Educational,   Scientific   and   Cultural Organisation being of the opinion that the Auroville project would  contribute   to   international   understanding   and promotion of  peace sponsored  the project  by  proposing  a resolution to this effect at its General Conference in 1966. This resolution  was unanimously adopted at this conference. By a  further resolution  passed in  1968 the UNESCO invited its  member   States  and   international   non-governmental organisations to participate in the development of Auroville as an  international cultural township to bring together the values of different cultures and civilisations in harmonious environment  with   integrated   living   standards,   which corresponds to  man’s physical  and spiritual needs. In 1970 UNESCO had  directed its Director-General to take such steps as may  be feasible,  within  the  budgetary  provisions  to promote  the   development  of  Auroville  as  an  important international  cultural  programme.  Sri  Aurobindo  Society received large  funds in  the shape of grants from different organisations in  India and  abroad for  development of that township. The  assistance included  contributions  from  the State Governments  of the  value of  Rs. 66.50 lakhs and the Central Government of the value of Rs. 26.14 lakhs.      After the death of the Mother on 17th of November, 1973 a number  of problems of varying nature affecting the smooth running of  the project  cropped up. The Government of India on receiving  complaints about  mismanagement of the project and misuse  of funds  by Sri  Aurobindo  Society  set  up  a committee  under   the  chairmanship   of  the  Governor  of Pondicherry with  representatives of the Government of Tamil Nadu and  of the  Ministry of  Home Affairs  in the  Central Government to  look into  the matter.  The Committee  made a detailed scrutiny  of the  accounts of Sri Aurobindo Society relating  to   Auroville  and  found  instances  of  serious irregularities  in  the  management  of  the  Society,  mis- utilisation of  its  funds  and  their  diversion  to  other purposes. Further,  various other  serious difficulties  had arisen plaguing  the Management  of Auroville  and rendering thereby  any   further  growth   of  the   township   almost

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impossible. 731 In the  circumstances the  taking over  of the management of Auroville became imperative to ensure growth of the township in tune with its objectives.      Keeping in  view the  international  character  of  the project and  considering  the  government’s  involvement  in actively sponsoring  the project  through UNESCO, the growth and  management  of  the  project  had  become  the  primary responsibility of the Government of India. The ideals of the project formed  India’s highest aspirations, which could not be allowed  to be  defeated  or  frustrated.  Sri  Aurobindo society had lost complete control over the situation and the members of  the Auroville approached the Government of India to give  protection against  oppression and victimisation at the hands  of the said Society. There were internal quarrels between the various factions of Sri Aurobindo Society. There have  also  been  instances  of  law  and  order  situation. Financial management  of the projects has not been sound and several instances  of mismanagement, diversion of funds have been revealed.  A large  sum  of  money  was  given  by  Sri Aurobindo  Society  to  AURO  construction-an  agency  whose status.  is   not  at   all  defined,  whose  functions  and capabilities for taking up large construction works also had not been  made known.  The Government  in the  circumstances could not  be a silent spectator to the mismanagement of the project and  internecine quarrels amongst its members, which if not  checked could lead to the destruction of the project so nobly  conceived. The  Government, therefore,  decided to issue a Presidential Ordinance. After the filing of the writ petition  the   ordinance  has  now  been  replaced  by  the Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1980.      The  constitutional   validity  of  the  Act  has  been challenged  on   four  grounds:   (i)  Parliament   has   no legislative competence  to enact  the impugned statute; (ii) The impugned Act infringes Articles 25, 26, 29 and 30 of the Constitution; (iii) The impugned Act is violative of Article 14 of the Constitution; and (iv) The Act was mala fide.      Dismissing the petitions, the Court ^      HELD:      (Per Misra, J.)      1:1. The  Parliament had  the legislative competence to enact the  Auroville (Emergency  Provisions) Act,  1980 (Act LIX) of 1980. [770 D]      1:2. The  subject matter  of the  impugned Act  is  not covered by Entry 32 of List II of the Seventh Schedule. Even if the  subject matter of the impugned Act is not covered by any specific  entry of List I or III of the Seventh Schedule of the  Constitution it  would in any case be covered by the residuary entry 97 of List I. [770 C-D]      1:3. The  function of the Lists in the Seventh Schedule to the  Constitution is  not to  confer powers.  They merely demarcate the  legislative fields.  The Entries in the three Lists are  only legislative  heads or  fields of legislation and the 732 power to  legislate is  given to  appropriate legislature by Articles 245 to 248 of the Constitution. [766 H, 767 A]      1:4. The  Auroville  Act  even  incidentally  does  not trench upon  the field  covered by the West Bengal Societies Registration Act,  1961 as  it  is  in  no  way  related  to Constitution, regulation and winding up of the Society. [770 B]      R.C. Cooper  v. Union  of India [1970] 3 SCR 530 @ 563,

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applied.      Attorney General  for Ontario  v. Attorney  General for the Dominion  [1896] AC 348 @ 366-67; Union of India v. H.S. Dhillon [1972]  2 SCR  33 @ 45; Board of Trustees, Ayurvedic and Unani  Tibia College  v. The  State of  Delhi and Others [1962] 1  Supp. SCR 156; Katra Education Society v. State of Uttar Pradesh and Others [1966] 3 SCR 328, referred to.      2:1. The  words "religious  denomination" in Article 26 of the  Constitution must  take their  colour from  the word ’religion’ and  if this  be so,  the  expression  "religious denomination" must also satisfy three conditions:      (i)  It must  be a  collection of individuals who has a           system of beliefs or doctrine which they regard as           conducive to  their spiritual well-being, that is,           a common faith;      (ii) Common organisation: and      (iii)Designation by a distinctive name. [774 B-D]      2:2. The term ’religion’ has been judicially considered in the Commissioner of Hindu Religious Endowments, Madras v. Sri Lakshmindra  Thirtha Swamiyar  of Sri Shriur Mutt [1954] SCR 1005  and the  following propositions  of law  laid down therein have  been  consistently  followed  in  later  cases including The  Durgah Committee,  Ajmer and  Another v. Syed Hussain Ali & Others [1962] 1 SCR 383 @ 410-11 :      (1)  Religion means  "a system  of beliefs or doctrines           which are  regarded  by  those  who  profess  that           religion as  conducive  to  their  spiritual  well           being";      (2)  A religion  is not  merely an opinion, doctrine or           belief. It  has its  outward expression in acts as           well;      (3)  Religion need not be theistic;      (4)  "Religious denomination" means a religious sect or           body having  a common  faith and  organisation and           designated by a distinctive name;      (5)  A   law   which   takes   away   the   rights   of           administration  from  the  hands  of  a  religious           denomination altogether and vests in another 733           authority would  amount to  violation of the right           guaranteed under  clause (d)  of Article 26." [773           E-H, 774A]      Per Majority  [Misra, J for himself, Y. V. Chandrachud, C.J., P.  N. Bhagwati  and V.  Balakrishna  Eradi,  JJ.  and Chinnappa Reddy, J. dissenting.]      2:3. On  the basis  of the  materials the Memorandum of Association of the Society, the several applications made by the Society  claiming exemption under s. 35 and s. 80 of the Income-tax Act,  the repeated  uttering of Sri Aurobindo and the Mother that the society and Auroville were not religious institutions and  host of  other documents  there is no room for doubt  that neither the Society nor Auroville constitute a religious  denomination and the teachings of Sri Aurobindo only represented  his philosophy and not a religion. [793 D- E]      Numerous  Uttering  by  Sri  Aurobindo  or  the  Mother unmistakably show that the Ashram or Society or Auroville is not a  religious institution.  There can  be no better proof than what Sri Aurobindo and the Mother themselves thought of their teachings  and their  institutions to find out whether the  teachings  of  Sri  Aurobindo  and  his  Integral  Yoga constitute a  religion or  a philosophy.  The Uttering  made from time  to time  by Sri  Aurobindo and  the Mother hardly leave any  doubt about the nature of the Institution. It was on the  basis that  it was not a religious institution, that

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the Society collected funds from the Central Government, the Governments of  States, other non-Governmental agencies. and from abroad. [792 B-D, 793 A]      Even assuming  but not  holding that the Society or the Auroville  were   a  religious  denomination,  the  impugned enactment  is   not  hit  by  Articles  25  and  26  of  the Constitution. The  impugned enactment  does not  curtail the freedom of  conscience and  the  right  freely  to  profess, practise and  propagate religion.  Therefore,  there  is  no question of the enactment being hit by Article 25. [793 E-F]      2:4. The  impugned enactment  does not stand in the way of the Society establishing and maintaining institutions for religious and charitable purposes, It also does not stand in the way  of the  Society to manage its affairs in matters of religion. [794 A-B]      2:5. Even  assuming that the society or Auroville was a religious denomination,  clause (b) of Art. 26 guarantees to a religious  denomination a  right to manage its own affairs in matters  of religion. Besides the right to manage its own affairs in  matters of  religion, which  is given  by clause (b), the  next  two  clauses  of  Art.  26  guarantee  to  a religious denomination the right to acquire and own property and to  administer such property in accordance with law. The administration of  its property  by a religious denomination has thus  been placed  on a different footing from the right to manage  its own  affairs in  the matters of religion. The latter is  a fundamental right which no legislature can take away, whereas  the former can be regulated by laws which the legislature can take away, 734 whereas the  former can  be  regulated  by  laws  which  the legislature can  validity impose.  It is  clear,  therefore, that question  merely  relating  to  a  religions  group  or institution are  not matters  of religion to which clause of article applies.[800 H, 801 A-B]      2:6. The  impugned Act  had not taken away the right of management  in   matters  of   religion   or   a   religious denomination, if  the Society  or Auroville  is a  religious denomination at  all, rather  it has taken away the right of management of  the property  of Auroville. Thus the impugned Act neither  violates Article  25, nor  Article  26  of  the Constitution. [801 C-D]      The Commissioner of H. R. & C. E. Madras v. Lakshmindra Tirtha Swamiyar  of Sri  Sirur Mutt  [1954] S.C.R. 1005; The Durgah Committee  Ajmer and  Another  v.  Syed  Hussain  Ali [1962] 1  S.C.R, 383;  Tilkyat Shri  Govindlalji Maharaj  v. State of  Rajasthan &  others [1964]  1 S.C.R.  561;  Sastri Yagnapurushadri & Others v. Muldas Bhudardas Vysya & Another [1966]  3  S.C.R.  242;  Divyadassan  Rajendra  Ramdassji  & Another v.  State of  Andhra Pradesh  [1970] 1  S.C.R.  103; Nalaw Ramalingayya  v. The  Commissioner of  Charitable  and Hindu Religious Institutions and Endowments Hyderabad A.I,R. 1971 (AP)  320; T.  Krishnan v. G.D.M. Committee A.I.R, 1978 Kerala 68; applied.      3.   On an  analysis of  Articles 29  and  30  and  the decided cases  it is evident that the Auroville Act does not seek to  curtail the  right of  any section  of  citizen  to conserve its  own language,  script or  culture conferred by Article 29.  The benefit of Art. 30(1) can be claimed by the community  only  on  proving  that  it  is  a  religious  or linguistic minority and that the institution was established by it.  Since Auroville  or the  Society is  not a religious denomination, Articles  29 and 30 would not be attached and, therefore, the  impugned Act  cannot be held to be violative of Articles 29 and 30 of the Constitution. [805 A-C]

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    In re:  The  Kerala  Education  Bill  [1959]  SCR  995; Reverend Sidhaibhai  Serbhai and  Others v.  State of Bombay and Another  [1963] 3  SCR 837  @ 856;  State of  Kerala  v. Mother Provincial [1971] 1 SCR 734; applied.      4.   The Auroville  Take over  Act cannot be said to be violative of  Article 14  of the  Constitution, which action was taken after full consideration of various aspects of the problem, for the reasons namely, (i) it has not been pointed out  which   were  the   other  institutions  where  similar situations were  prevailing; and  (ii) there is a uniqueness with this  institution inasmuch  as the  Government is  also involved. Even a single institution may be taken as a class. The situation  prevailing in the Auroville had converted the dream of the Mother into a nightmare. There had arisen acute law and  order situation  in the  Auroville, numerous  cases were pending against various foreigners, the funds meant for the Auroville  had been  diverted towards other purposes and the atmosphere was getting out of hand. In the circumstances the Government  intervened and promulgated the Ordinance and later on substituted it by the impugned enactment.                                                    [814 B-D] 735      Budhan Choudhary  v. The  State of  Bihar [1955]  1 SCR 1045: Shri  Ramakrishna Dalmia v. Sri Justice S.R. Tandolkar and Others  [1959] SCR  279; Raja Birakishore v. The Sate of Orissa [1964] 7 SCR 32, followed.      Ram Prasad  Narayan Sahi  and Another v. State of Bihar and Others [1953] SCR 1129; distinguished.      5:1. Whether the  remedies provided under the Societies Registration Act  were sufficient  to meet the exigencies of the situation  is not  for the Court to decide but it is for the Government  and  if  the  Government  thought  that  the conditions prevailing  in the  Auroville and the Society can be ameliorated  not by  resorting to  the provisions  of the Societies Registration  Act but by a special enactment, that is an area of the Government and not of the Court. [818 E-F]      5:2. It is  not correct to say that the facts stated in the preamble  of the  Act were non est. Obviously there were serious  irregularities   in  the  management  of  the  said society. There  has been  mis-utilisation of funds and their diversion to  other purposes. This is evident from the audit report. There was no material change in the situation on the date of  the impugned  ordinance  or  the  Act,  rather  the situation had  grown  from  bad  to  worse  and  the  sordid situation prevailing  in the Auroville so pointed out by the parties fully  justified the  promulgation of  the Ordinance and the  passing of  the enactment.  Of course,  each  party tried to  apportion the  blame on  the other. Who so ever be responsible, the  fact remains that the prevailing situation in the  Auroville was  far  from  satisfactory.  The  amount donated  for  the  construction  of  the  cultural  township Auroville and  other institutions  was to  the tune of Rs. 3 crores. It  was the  responsibility of the Government to see that the  amount was  not misutilised and the management was properly carried  out. On  a perusal  of the  audit  report, which is  a voluminous  one, all that can be said is that on the facts found by the audit committee, the report is rather a mild  one. There seems to be serious irregularities in the accounts. A  substantial amount received by way of donations had not been properly spent, there being mis-utilisation and diversion of the funds. [819 B-F]      5:3. Even assuming that the facts brought to the notice of the  legislature were  wrong, it  will not be open to the Court to  hold that Act to be bad on that account. The Court would not  do so  even in  case of  a litigation  which  has

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become final  on the  ground that  the facts or the evidence produced in the case were not correct. The Parliament had to apply its mind on the facts before it.                                                    [819 F-H]      We  can  normally  assume  that  the  Government  would certainly appoint  a responsible  person as an administrator especially  when  there  is  a  heavy  stake  in  which  the Government of  India is  also involved  in as much as at the instance of the Government the UNESCO gave financial support to the institution.                                                    [820 F-G]      6. The  contention that the report of the committee was tainted as  Shri Kulkarni  the Chairman  and Secretary  were parties, is  without any  foundation. The  allegation of the impugne Act being malafide is equally devoid of force. 736 Kiriti Joshi  cannot be said to have his own axe to grind in the matter  or was  instrumental  in  getting  the  impugned Ordinance and  the Act  passed. Allegations about mala fides are more easily made than made out. Merely because he made a complaint about  the situation  prevailing in the management of Auroville  and the  Society, it  cannot be  said that the impugned enactment  was passed at his behest. [820 H, 821 B- C] Per Chinnappa Reddy, J. (Dissenting)      1:1. Shri Aurobindo  truly was  a religious teacher and taught and  was understood  to  have  taught  new  religious doctrine  and   practice.   Therefore,   Aurobindoism,   can certainly be  classified if  not as a new religion, as a new sect of  Hinduism and  the followers of Sri Aurobindo can be termed a  religious denomination.  Sri Aurobindo  of course, disclaimed  that  he  was  founding  a  religion.  No  great religious teacher  ever claimed  that he  was founding a new religion or  a new school of religious thought. The question is not whether Sri Aurobindo refused to claim or denied that he was  founding a new religion or a new school of religious thought but  whether his disciples and the community thought so. There  is no  doubt that they did not only his disciples and followers,  but religious leaders all the world over and of all  faiths. Therefore,  Aurobindo Society is a sect of a religious determination within the meaning of the expression in Article 26 of the Constitution. [754 G-H, 755 A-B, F-G]      1:2. The word ’religion’ does not occur in the Preamble to the constitution, but the Preamble does promise to secure to its  citizens "Liberty  of  thought,  expression,  belief faith and  worship". The freedom of conscience and the Right to profess,  propagate and  practise religion  guaranteed in Article 25  flow out  of the  idea so expressed in Preamble. Freedom of  conscience is not to be separated from the Right to  profess,   practise  and  propagate  religion.  They  go together and together they form part of the Right to Freedom of Religion.  It is  clear  from  Article  25  that  secular activity  may   be  associated  with  Religion.  though  the guarantee of  the article  does not extend to such activity. Article 26  guarantees that  every religious denomination or any section  thereof shall have the right, subject to public order,  morality  and  health,  to  establish  and  maintain institutions  for  religious  and  charitable  purposes,  to manage its  own affairs  in matters  of religion, to own and acquire movable  and immovable  property and  to  administer such property  in accordance with law. Several provisions of the  constitution   where  the   expression  ’religion’  and ’religious denomination’ are used are either those which are concerned with equality and equal opportunity or those which are concerned  with freedom of religion. [742 D, F, G-H, 743

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A, C]      1:3. Reading  Art.   25  in   the  background   of  the proclamation  regarding  Liberty  in  the  Preamble  to  the constitution, it  is clear  that (i)  the constitution views religion as comprising thought, expression, belief, faith or worship, as  involving the conscience and as something which may be  professed, practised and propagated and which is any man’s attribute  in the  same manner as race, sex, language, residence etc:  (ii) economic, financial, political or other secular activity  may be  associated with religious practice though such  activity is  not covered  by the  guarantee  of freedom of conscience and the right freely to 737 profess, practise  and propagate,  religion; and so Religion is a  matter  of  thought,  expression,  belief,  faith  and worship, a  matter involving  the conscience  and  a  matter which may  be professed,  practised and propagated by anyone and which  may even  have some  secular activity  associated with it. [744 F-H, 745 A]      1:4. Religion  undefined   by  the   constitution,   is incapable of  precise  judicia  definition  either.  In  the background of  the provisions  of the  constitution and  the light shed  by judicial  precedent, it  can at  best be said that religion is a matter of faith. It is a matter of belief and doctrine.  It concerns the conscience i.e. the spirit of man. It  must be  capable of  overt expressions  in work and deed, such  as worship or ritual. So religion is a matter of belief and  doctrine concerning  the human  spirit expressed overtly in  the form  of ritual  and worship. Some religions are  easily  identifiable  as  religious;  some  are  easily identifiable  as  not  religious.  There  are  many  in  the penumbral region  which  instinctively  appear  to  some  as religion and to others as not religions. There is no formula of  general   application.  There  is  no  knife-edge  test. Primarily, it  is a  question of  the consciousness  of  the community, how  does the  fraternity or  sodality (if  it is permissible to  use the  word without  confining it to Roman Catholic Groups)  regard itself,  how do  others regard  the fraternity or  sodality. A  host of  other circumstances may have to  be considered,  such as, the origin and the history of the  community, the  rituals observed  by the  community, what the  founder, if  any, taught,  what  the  founder  was understood by  his followers to have taught, etc. In origin, the founder  may not  have intended to found any religion at all. He  may have  merely protested against some rituals and observances, he  may have  disagreed with the interpretation of some  earlier religious  tenets. What  he said,  what  he preached and  what he  taught, his protest, his distant, his disagreement might  have developed  into a  religion in  the course of time, even during his life-time. He may be against religion itself,  yet, history  and the  perception  of  the community may  make a  religion out of what was not intended to be  a religion  and he  may be hailed as the founder of a new religion. [750 B-G]      And, whatever  the ordinary  features  of  a  religious denomination may  be considered  to be, all are not of equal importance and surely the common faith of the religious body is more important than the other features. [751 C]      The Commissioner  of HR and C.E., Madras v. Lakshmindra Tirtha Swamiyar  of Sri  Shirur  Mutt  [1954]  S.C.R.  1005; Ratilal Panachand  Gandhi v.  The  State  of  Bombay  [1954] S.C.R. 1055;  Durgah Committee of Ajmer v. Sayed Hussain Ali JUDGMENT: Maharaj v. The State of Rajasthan and Others [1964] 1 S.C.R. 561; Raja Virakishore v. State of Orissa [1964] 7 S.C.R. 32;

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Sasti Yagnapurushadji and Others v. Muldas Bhudardas Vaisnya and Another [1966] 3 S.C.R. 242; referred to.      1:5. Judidial    definitions    are    not    statutory definitions; they are mere explanations, every word of which is not to be weighed in golden scales. Law has a tendency to harden with  the passage of time and judicial pronouncements are made  to assume the form of statutory pronouncements. So soon as  a word  or expression  occurring in  the statute is judicially defined,  the tendency is to try to interpret the language employed  by the judges in the judicial definition. That  is   wrong.  Always   words  and   expressions  to  be interpreted are those employed in 738 the statute  and not  those used  by judges  for  felicitous explanation, Judicial  definition  is  explanatory  and  not definitive. [751 C-E]      1:6. Religious denomination  has not  to owe allegiance to any  parent religion.  The entire following of a religion may be  no more  than the  religious denomination.  This may particularly be  so in the case of small religious groups or ’developing’ religions,  that is, religions in the formative stage.  So   Aurobindoism  can  be  termed  as  a  religious denomination. The world and India treated and respected Shri Aurobindo as  a religious  teacher and  the founder of a new religion. [751 E-G]      2:1. Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Act. 1980 did not take away or purport to take away the management of the Shri Aurobindo Society.  Parliament  concerned  itself  with  the management of  Auroville only  and with no other activity of the  Shri  Aurobindo  Society,  including  ’its  affairs  in matters  of  religion’.  In  fact,  section  4(2)  makes  it explicit that, except for matters relating to the management of Auroville,  the provisions  of the  West Bengal Societies Registration  Act,   1961,  under   which  the  Society  was registered, shall  continue to  apply to  the Society in the same manner as before. [755 G-H, 757 C-D]      2:2. The  management  of  the  International,  cultural township of  Auroville cannot  be said  to be  a  matter  of religion. Auroville  is a  township and  not a  place of the worship. It is a township dedicated, not to the practice and the propagation  of any  religious doctrine  but to  promote international  understanding  and  world  peace,  surely,  a secular and  not a  religious activity. The highest that can be said in favour of Auroville being a religious institution or its  management being  a religious matter, is that it was conceived by  the Mother  and shaped  and sculpted  by  Shri Aurobindo’s disciples and followers in the pursuit of one of the ideas  and ideals  of Shri  Aurobindo, a great religious teacher. On  the other  hand, the ideal itself, that is, the promotion of  international understanding and world peace is by no  means a  religious ideal  and it  was because  of the nature of  the ideal  that the  Government of  India and the UNESCO adopted the project. Shri Aurobindo himself was not a mere religious teacher. He was a visionary, a humanist and a nationalist who  had  blossomed  into  an  internationalist. Therefore, Auroville,  though the  child of  the Mother  and though nurtured  by the  devotees of  Shri Aurobindo, has an individuality,  distinctly   secular  of   its  own.  Hence, Auroville (Emergency  Provisions) Act which provides for the taking over the management of Auroville for a limited period does not  offend the rights guaranteed by Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution. [757 E-H, 758 C]      2:3. The rights guaranteed by Articles 29 and 30 cannot be said  to have  been infringed  by the Auroville Emergency provisions Act.  No section of citizens having a culture and

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no religious minority has been denied the right to establish and administer  an educational  institution of  its  choice. [758 D-E] 739

&      ORIGINAL JURISDICTION: Writ Petition No. 5879 of 1980.      (Under Article 32 of the Constitution of India)                             AND               Writ Petition No. 5877 of 1980.      (Under Article 32 of the Constitution of India)                             AND               Transfered Case No. 29 of 1981.      (Calcutta High Court Writ Petition No. 11508 of 1981)                             With                Civil Appeal No. 2819 of 1980.      (Appeal by  special leave  from the  judgment and order dated 21st  November, 1980 of the Division Bench of the High Court of Calcutta in F.M.A.T. No. 3408 of 1980)      Soli J.  Sorabji, K.K.  Venugopal,  S.  Rangarajan,  S. Balakrishnan,  M.K.D.  Namboodiry,  P.  Radhakrishnan,  N.A. Subrahmaniam,  C.S.  Vaidyanathan,  M.N.  Krishna  Mani  and Vinnet Kumar for the Petitioners and Appellant.      L.N. Sinha,  Attorney General,  K. Parasaran, Solicitor General, M.K.  Banerji, Additional Solicitor General, Govind Swaminadhan, for  R. 3, N. Nettar and Miss A. Subhashini for Respondents Nos. 1 to 4.      T.S.  Krishnamoorthy  Iyer  and  Raju  Ramchandran  for Respondent No. 5.      F.S. Nariman,  Anil B. Divan, P.H. Parekh, Mrs. Vineeta Sengupta, Gautam  Philip and  Sanjeev Agarwal for Respondent Nos. 6 to 240 in WPs. & CA.      P.P.  Rao,   P.C.  Kapur   and  R.   Venkataramani  for interveners 1-88. 740 FOR APPLICANT/INTERVENERS A.B. Patel:              -    R.B. Datar Indra Sen:               -    N.M. Kshatriya, R.K. Habbu:              -    B.R. Aggarwala, Catholic Bishop Con-     -    P.A. Francis, J.B. Dadachanji ference of India:             and D.N. Mishra      The following Judgments were delivered      CHINNAPPA REDDY,  J. I  have the good fortune of having before me  the scholarly  judgment of my brother Misra J., I agree with my brother Misra, J  that the Writ Petitions must fail. With  much that he has said, also, I agree. But with a little, to  my own  lasting regret,  I do  not agree. It is, therefore, proper  for  me  to  explain  the  points  of  my disagreement.      Quite  a  considerable  part  of  the  hearing  of  the petitions was  devoted to  a debate on the question, what is Religion ? Religion: Everyone has a religion, or at least, a view or  a window  on religion,  be he  a  bigot  or  simple believer, philosopher  or pedestrian,  atheist or  agnostic. Religion, like  ’democracy’ and  ’equality’  is  an  elusive expression, which everyone understands according to his pre- conceptions. What  is religion  to some  is  pure  dogma  to others and  what is  religion to others is pure superstition to some  others.  Karl  Marx  in  his  contribution  to  the Critique of  Hegel’s Philosophy of Law described religion as the ’Opium  of  the  people’.  He  said  further  "Basically religion  is  a  very  convenient  sanctuary  for  bourgeois thought to  flee to in times of stress. Bertrand Russell, in

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his essay  ’Why I  am not  Christian’,  said,  "Religion  is based, I  think, primarily  and mainly  upon  fear."  It  is partly the terror of the unknown and partly, as I have said, the wish  to feel that you have a kind of elder brother, who will stand by you in all your troubles and disputes. Fear is the basis of the whole thing-fear of the mysterious, fear of defeat, fear  of death.  Fear is the parent of cruelty, and, therefore, it is no wonder if cruelty and religion have gone hand in  hand. As a worshipper at the alter of peace, I find it  difficult   to  reconcile   myself  to  religion,  which throughout the  ages, has  justified war calling it a Dharma Uddha, a Jehad or a 741 Crusade. I  believe that  by getting mixed up with religion, ethics has  lost ’much of its point, much of its purpose and a major portion of its spontaneity’. I apprehend I share the views of those who have neither faith nor belief in religion and who  consider  religion  as  entirely  unscientific  and irrational. Chanting  of prayer  appears to  me to  be  mere jingoism and  observance of  ritual, plain superstition. But my views about religion. my prejudices and my predilections, if they  be such,  are entirely irrelevant. So are the views of the  credulous, the fanatic, the bigot and the zealot. So also the views of the faithful, the devout, the Acharya, the Moulvi, the Padre and the Bhikshu each of whom may claim his as the  only true  or revealed  religion.  For  our  present purpose, we  are concerned  with  what  the  people  of  the Socialist, Secular,  Democratic Republic  of India, who have given each  of its  citizens Freedom  of conscience  and the right to freely profess, practise and propogate religion and who have  given every  religious denomination  the right  to freely  manage   its  religious   affairs,   mean   by   the expressions’religion’ and  ’religious denomination’.  We are concerned with  what these  expressions are designed to mean in Arts. 25 and 26 of the Constitution. Any Freedom or Right involving the  conscience  must  naturally  receive  a  wide interpretation and  the expression ’religion’ and ’religious denomination’ must  therefore, be  interpreted in no narrow, stifling sense but is a liberal, expansive way.      Etymology is  of no  avail. Religion  is  derived  from ’religare’ which means "to bind". Etymologically, therefore, every bond between two people is a religion, but that is not true.  To   say  so  is  only  to  indulge  in  etymological deception. Quite  obviously, religion  is much  more than  a mere bond uniting people.      Quite obviously,  again, religion is not to be confined to  the  traditional,  established,  well-known  or  popular religions  like   Hinduism,   Mahomedanism,   Buddhism   and Christianity. There  may be  and, indeed, there are, in this vast country,  several religions, less known or even unknown escept in  the remote corners or in the small pockets of the land where  they may  be practised.  A religion  may not  be wide-spread. It  may have  little following. It may not have even a name, as indeed most tribal religions do not have. We may only  describe them  by adding  the suffix  ’ism’ to the name of  the founder-teacher,  the tribe,  the area  or  the deity. The nomenclature is not of the essence. Again, a band of persons, large or small, may not be said to be 742 adherents of  a religion  merely  because  they  share  some common beliefs  and common  interests  and  practise  common rites and  ceremonies;  nor  can  pietistic  recitation  and solemn ritual  combine to  produce religion, on that account only.  Secret  societies  dedicated  to  secular  tasks  and indulging in  queer oaths and observances, guilds and groups

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of persons  who meet  but to  dine and  wine but who subject their members  to extravagant initiation ceremonies, village and tribal sorcerers and coven of witches who chant rant and dance in  the most  weird way  possible are  all far removed from  religion.   They  appear   to  lack   the   ’spiritual connection’. But,  all this  is unsatisfactory.  We are  not arriving at  any definition  of religion. We are only making peripheral journeys  and not  getting any nearer to the core of the problem presented to us.      Let  us   examine  the   relevant  provisions   of  the Constitution for such light as they may throw on the meaning of the  expressions ’religion’  and religious denomination’. They are  not defined. The word ’religion’ does not occur in the Preamble  to the  Constitution, but  the  Preamble  does promise to  secure to  its  citizens  "Liberty  of  thought, expression, belief,  faith  and  worship".  The  Freedom  of conscience and  the Right to profess, propagate and practice religion,flow of  the idea  so expressed in the Preamble. In Part-III of  the Constitution,  under  the  head  "Right  to Freedom of  Religion", there  are  four  Articles.  Art25(i) guarantees to all persons, subject to public order, morality and health  and to  the other  provisions of Part-III of the Constitution, freedom  of conscience and the right freely to profess,  practise   and  propagate   religion.  Freedom  of conscience is not to be separated from the Right to profess, practice  and  propagate  religion.  They  go  together  and together they form part of the Right to Freedom of Religion. Clause (2)  of Art. 25, however, stipulates that the freedom and the  right guaranteed  by cl.  (1) shall not prevent the State from  making any  law regulating  or restricting,  any economic, financial,  political or  other  secular  activity which may  be associated  with  religious  practice.  Or  to provide for social welfare and reform or to throw open Hindu religious institutions  of a public character to all classes and sections  of Hindus. So, the Article makes it clear that secular activity may be associated with Religion, though the guarantee of  the article  does not extend to such activity, Art. 26  guarantees that every religious denomination or any section thereof  shall have  the right,  subject  to  public order,  morality  and  health,  to  establish  and  maintain institutions for 743 religious and charitable purposes, to manage its own affairs in matters  of religion,  to own  and  acquire  movable  and immovable  property  and  to  administer  such  property  in accordance with law.Art. 27 prohibits compulsion for payment of taxes  for promotion  of any particular religion. Art. 28 bars  religious   instruction  in   any  institution  wholly maintained out  of State  funds and  prevents compulsion  to attend any  religious instruction  or religious  worship  in educational  institutions   recognised  by   the  State   or receiving aid out of State funds.      Apart from  Articles 25  to  28,  the  word  ’religion’ occurs in Arts. 15(1), 15(2), 16(2), 16(5), 23(2), 29(2) and 30 of the Constitution.      Art.  15(1)   prescribes  that   the  State  shall  not discriminate  against   any  citizen   on  grounds  only  of religion, race,  caste, sex,  place of birth or any of them. Art. 15(2)  provides, in  particular, that no citizen shall, on ground only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any  of them,  be subject  to any  disability,  liability restriction or  condition with  regard to  access to  shops, public   restaurants,    hotels   and   places   of   public entertainment; or  the use  of wells,  tanks, bathing ghats, roads and  places of  public  resort  maintained  wholly  or

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partly out  of State  funds or  dedicated to  the use of the general public.      Art.16(2) guarantees  that no citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence  or   any  of   them,  be   ineligible   for,   or discriminated against in respect of any employment or office under  the   State.  Art.   16(5)  exempts  from  the  right guaranteed under  Art. 16  the operation  of any  law  which provides that  the incumbent of an office in connection with the affairs  of any  religious or denominational institution or any  member of  the governing  body thereof  shall  be  a person professing  a particular  religion or  belonging to a particular denomination.      Art.  23(2),   while  enabling   the  State  to  impose compulsory service  for public purposes, prohibits the State from making  any discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste or class or any of them. 744      Art. 29(2)  provides that  no citizen  shall be  denied admission to  any educational  institution maintained by the State or  receiving aid  out of  State funds  on grounds  of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.      Art. 30(1)  guarantees to all minorities, whether based on  religion   or  language   the  right  to  establish  and administer educational  institutions of  their choice.  Art. 30(2) further provides that the State shall not, in granting aid to  educational institutions,  discriminate against  any educational institutions  on the ground that it is under the management of  a minority,  whether  based  on  religion  or language.      It is  readily seen  that the several provisions of the Constitution where the expressions ’religion’ and ’religious denomination’ are  used are either those which are concerned with equality  and equal  opportunity  or  those  which  are concerned with  freedom of religion. Art. 15(1), Art. 16(2), Art. 23(2),  Art. 29(2)  are the  several equality and equal opportunity  clauses   of  the     Constitution   which  bar discrimination on  the ground  of religion,  and they  place religion in  equation with race, caste, sex, place of birth, residence and  language for  the  purposes  of  the  various aspects of  equality dealt  with by them. Art. 30 recognises the existence  of minority  groups based  on religion  along with minority  groups based on language. Arts. 25 to 28 deal with the  Right to  Freedom of  Religion which,  as we  said earlier is  traceable to  the idea  of "Liberty  of Thought, Expression, Belief,  Faith and  Worship" in  the Preamble to the Constitution.  Art. 25  guarantees freedom of conscience and the  right freely  to profess,  practise  and  propagate religion, but  saves  laws  regulating  or  restricting  any economic, financial,  political or  other  secular  activity which may  be associated  with religious  practice.  Reading Art. 25  in the  background of  the  proclamation  regarding Liberty in  the Preamble  to the Constitution, we may safely conclude that the Constitution views religion, as comprising thought, expression,  belief, faith or worship, as involving the conscience  and as  something which  may  be  professed, practised and propagated and which is any man’s attribute in the same  manner as  race, sex  language, residence  etc. We also  see  that  economic,  financial,  political  or  other secular activity  may be  associated with religious practice though such  activity is  not covered  by the  guarantee  of freedom of  conscience and  the  right  freely  to  profess, practise  and   propagate  religion.  So,  the  Constitution considers Religion  as  a  matter  of  thought,  expression, belief, faith and worship, a matter

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745 involving  the   conscience  and   a  matter  which  may  be professed, practised  and propagated by anyone and which may even have  some secular activity associated with it. We have already  said  that  any  Freedom  or  Right  involving  the conscience must  naturally receive a wide interpretation and the  expressions  ’Religion’  and  ’Religious  Denomination’ must, therefore, be interpreted in no narrow, stifling sense but in a liberal, expansive way.      How has  the Court  looked at  the expression ’religion and ’religious denomination’ and how has the Court attempted to define  them ?  We begin  with the well-known Shirur Mutt case where  Mukherjea J, speaking for himself and six of his colleagues, examined  the question  in some  detail and,  of course, with  great erudition. We must first notice that the Court, there,  was considering  the question of the vires of the Madras  Hindu Religious  and Charitable  Endowments  Act 1951  which   was  sought  to  be  made  applicable  to  the institution known  as Shirur  Mutt, one  of the  eight Mutts situated at  Udipi and  reputed to have been founded by Shri Madhwa Charya,  the renowned  exponent of ’dualistic thesim’ in the Hindu Religion. The trustees and the beneficiaries of the Mutt,  it was  claim and established, were the followers of Shri  Madhwa  Charya.  The  question  arose  whether  the spiritual fraternity  constituted by  the followers  of Shri Madhwa Charya could be said to be a ’religious denomination’ within the  meaning of  Art. 26,  entitling them  to  manage their own  affairs  in  ’matters  of  religion’.  The  Court noticed that  while cl.  (b) of  Art.  26  guaranteed  to  a religious denomination  the right  to manage its own affairs in matters  of religion,  other clauses of the Article dealt with the  right of  a religious  denomination to acquire and own property  and to  administer such property in accordance with law.  The administration of its property by a religious denomination having  thus been placed on a different footing from the  right to  manage its  own affairs  in  matters  of religion, the Court said:           "the  latter  is  a  Fundamental  Right  which  no      legislature can  take away,  whereas the  former can be      regulated by  laws which  the legislature  can  validly      impose. It  is clear,  therefore, that questions merely      relating to administration of properties belonging to a      religious group  or  institution  are  not  matters  of      religion to which clause (b) of the Article applies." 746 Mukherjea, J,  then proceeded  to consider what were matters of religion  ? He  noticed that  ’religion’ was a term which was hardly  susceptible of any rigid definition. He rejected the definition  given in  Davis v. Benson as neither precise nor adequate and went on to say,           "Religion is  certainly a  matter  of  faith  with      individuals or  communities and  it is  not necessarily      theistic. There  are well known religions in India like      Buddhism and  Jainism which do not believe in God or in      any Intelligent First Cause. A religion undoubtedly has      its basis in a system of beliefs or doctrines which are      regarded  by   those  who   profess  that  religion  as      conducive to  their spiritual  well being, but it would      not be correct to say that religion is nothing else but      a doctrine  or belief. A religion may not only lay down      a code of ethical rules for its followers to accept, it      might prescribe  rituals and  observavances, ceremonies      and modes  of worship  which are  regarded as  integral      parts of religion, and these forms and dress." Mukherjea,J., accepted the following observations of Latham,

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CJ in Vide Adelaide Company v. The Commonwealth(1), as fully applicable to  the protection  of religion  as guaranteed by the Indian Constitution:           "It is  sometimes suggested  in discussions on the      subject of  freedom of  religion that, though the civil      Government  should   not   interfere   with   religious      opinions, it  nevertheless may  deal as it pleases with      any acts  which are  done  in  pursuance  of  religious      belief without  infringing the  principle of freedom of      religion. It  appears to me to be difficult to maintain      this distinction  as relevant  to the interpretation of      section 116. The section refers in express terms to the      exercise of religion, and, therefore, it is intended to      protect from  the operation  of any  Commonwealth  laws      acts which  are done  in the exercise of religion. Thus      the section  goes  far  beyond  protecting  liberty  of      opinion. It  protects also  acts done  in pursuance  of      religious belief as part of religion." 747 Mukherjea, J.,  thereafter,  pointed  out  that  freedom  of religion under the Indian Constitution also was not confined to  religious   beliefs  only,   it  extended  to  religious practices as  well subject  to the  restrictions  which  the Constitution itself had laid down. Under Art. 26(b) he said, a religious  denomination or  organisation enjoyed  complete autonomy in  the matter  of deciding  as to  what rites  and ceremonies were  essential according  to the tenets of their religion  they   held  and  no  outside  authority  had  any jurisdiction  to  interfere  with  their  decision  in  such matters. But,  he said, the scale of expenses to be incurred in connection  with the  religious observances  would  be  a matter  of  administration  of  property  belonging  to  the religious denomination  and  to  be  controlled  by  secular authorities in  accordance with  any  law  laid  down  by  a competent legislature. He added,           "It should be noticed, however, that under Art. 26      (d),  it  is  the  Fundamental  Right  of  a  religious      denomination or  its representative  to administer  its      properties in  accordance with  the law;  and the  law,      therefore, must  leave the  right of  administration to      the religious  denomination  itself,  subject  to  such      restrictions and  regulations as  it  might  choose  to      impose  a   law  which   takes  away   the   right   of      administration  from   the   hands   of   a   religious      denomination altogether  and  vests  it  in  any  other      authority, would  amount to  a violation  of the  right      guaranteed under cl. D of Art. 26". Mukherjea,  J  also  considered  the  question  whether  the followers of  Madhwacharya could  be considered  a religious denomination and  whether  Sivalli  Brahmins  constituted  a section of  that religious  denomination. The meaning of the word denomination  was culled out from the Oxford Dictionary where  it   has  been  defined  to  mean  ’a  collection  of individuals  classed   together  under   the  same  name.  a religious  sect   or  body   having  a   common  faith   and organisation  and   designated  by   a  distinctive   name". Reference was  then made  to "a galaxy of religious teachers and philosophers  who founded  the different  sects and sub- sects of  the Hindu  religion that  we find  in India at the present day".  It was  emphatically stated  that each one of such  sects   or  sub-sects  could  certainly  be  called  a religious denomination as it was designated by a distinctive name-in many  cases it was the name of the founder-and had a common faith  and  common  spiritual  organisation.  It  was observed," the  followers of  Ramanuja, who are known by the

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name of  Shri Vaishnobas, undoubtedly constitute a religious denomination; and so do the 748 followers of  Madhwacharya and  other religious teachers. It is a fact well-established by tradition that the eight Udipi Maths were  founded by Madhwacharya himself and the trustees and the beneficiaries of these Maths profess to be followers of that  teacher. The  High Court has found that the Math in question is  in charge  of Sivalli Brahmins who constitute a section  of  the  followers  of  Madhwacharya.  As  Art.  26 contemplates not merely a religious denomination, but also a section  thereof,  the  Math  or  the  spiritual  fraternity represented by  it can  legitimately come within the purview of this article."      So, in  the Shirur  Mutt case,  Mukherjea  J  expressed difficulty in  defining the term ’religion’ with exactitude, but explained  it  as  something  founded  upon  beliefs  or doctrines, regarded  by those  professing  the  religion  as conductive to  their spiritual  well-being and  attended  by practices and  observances viewed by the religious community as integral  to the  religion. Mukherjea  J, however,  found less difficulty  in defining ’religious denomination’ in the same terms as in the Oxford Dictionary.      Ratilal Panachand  Gandhi v.  The State  of Bombay  and Ors.(1) was  decided by  five  of  the  Learned  Judges  who constituted the  Bench which  decided the  Shirur Mutt case. What was  said in  the Shirur Mutt was reiterated and it was again emphasised  that religion  was not  merely an opinion, doctrine or belief and that it had its outward expression in acts as  well. The  following observations  of Davar  J,  in Jamshedjee v.  Sunnabal(2) were  approved: "If  this is  the belief of  the community, and it is proved undoubtedly to be the belief  of the Zoroastrian community,-a secular judge is bound to  accept that  belief-it is  not for  him to  sit in judgment on  that belief,  he is not right to interfere with the conscience of a donor who makes a gift in favour of what he believes  to be  the advancement  of his religion and the welfare of  his community  or mankind". I have stated almost at the  outset that  judges’  faith  or  lack  of  faith  in religion is  irrelevant in  deciding  what  are  matters  of religion.      In the  Durgah Committee  Ajmer v.  Syed Hussain  Ali & others(3) the Court reiterated the position that the freedom guaranteed by Art. 25(1) was not only the right to entertain such religious beliefs as 749 my appeal  to his conscience but also afforded him the right to exhibit his belief in his conduct by such outward acts as may appear  to him  proper in  order to spread his ideas for the benefit  of others.  A note  of  caution  was,  however, struck and it was said that practices in order to qualify as matters of  religion should be regarded by the said religion as its  essential  and  integral  part.  Otherwise,  it  was pointed out, even purely secular practices which were not an essential or  an integral  part of  religion were  apt to be clothed  with  a  religious  form  and  stake  a  claim  for treatment as  religious practices.  Mukherjea J’s definition of ’religious denomination’ in the Shirur Mutt case was also accepted and  the case  was permitted  to be  argued on  the broad  and   general  ground   that  the   Chishtia  Soofies constituted either  a religious denomination or a section of a religious denomination.      In Tilkayat  Shri Govindlalji  Maharaj v.  The State of Rajasthan and  Ors.(1) the  question was  whether the famous Nath Dwara  Temple was  a public temple? It was held that it

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was a  public temple.  It was  assumed that the followers of Vallabha constituted a religious denomination.      In Raja  Virakishore v.  State of  Orissa(2)-one of the arguments sought to be advanced before the Supreme Court was that the  worshippers  of  Lord  Jagan  Nath  constituted  a religious denomination  and that  the Shri Jagan Nath Temple Act, which  took away  the  right  of  management  from  the denomination, contravened  the Fundamental  Right guaranteed by Art.  26(d) of  the Constitution. The answer of the State was that  the temple did not pertain to any particular sect, cult or  creed of  Hindus, but was a public temple above all sects, cults  and creeds  and, therefore,  it  was  not  the temple of any particular denomination The Court however, did not permit  the worshippers  to raise  the argument  as  the state of pleadings were found to be defective.      In Sasti  Yagnapurushad ji and Ors. v. Muldas Bhudardas Vaishya  and   Anr.(1)  the   question  arose   whether  the Swaminarayan sect  followed a religion distinct and separate from the  Hindu  religion  and  whether,  consequently,  the temple belonging to the sect was outside the ambit of Bombay Hindu Places of Public Worships (Entry 750 Authorisation) Act  ? Gajendragadkar,  CJ, on  an exhaustive consideration of  various Hindu  Texts  and  the  texts  and history of  the Swaminarayan  sect, came  to the  conclusion that the  Swaminarayan sect was not a religion, distinct and separate from the Hindu Religion.      It  is   obvious  that   religion,  undefined   by  the Constitution, is  incapable of  precise judicial  definition either.  In   the  background   of  the  provisions  of  the Constitution and  the light  shed by  judicial precedent, we may say  religion is  a matter  of faith.  It is a matter of belief and  doctrine. It  concerns the  conscience i.e.  the spirit of  man. It  must be  capable of  overt expression in word and deed, such as, worship or ritual. So, religion is a matter of  belief and doctrine, concerning the human spirit, expressed overtly  in the  form of  ritual and worship. Some religions are  easily identifiable  as religions,  some  are easily identifiable  as not religions. There are many in the penumbral region  which  instinctively  appear  to  some  as religion and to others as not religions. There is no formula of  general   application.  There  is  no  knife-edge  test. Primarily, it  is a  question of  the consciousness  of  the community, how  does the  fraternity or  sodality (if  it is permissible to  use the  word without  confining it to Roman Catholic groups)  regard itself,  how do  others regard  the fraternity or  sodality. A  host of  other circumstances may have to  be considered,  such as, the origin and the history of the community, the beliefs and the doctrines professed by the community,  the rituals  observed by the community, what the founder, if any, taught, what the founder was understood by his followers to have taught, etc. In origin, the founder may not  have intended  to found any religion at all. He may have merely  protested against some rituals and observances; he may  have  disagreed  with  the  interpretation  of  some earlier religious tenets. What he said, what he preached and what he  taught, his  protest, his dissent, his disagreement might have  developed into a religion in the course of time, even during  his  life-time.  He  may  be  against  religion itself, yet, history and the perception of the community may make a  religion out  of what  was  not  intended  to  be  a religion and  he may  be hailed  as the  founder  of  a  new religion. There  are the  obvious examples  of Buddhism  and Jainism and  for that  matter Christianity  itself.  Neither Buddha nor  Mahavira, nor  Christ ever thought of founding a

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new religion, yet three great religions bear their names.      If the  word ’religion’  is once explained, though with some difficulty, the expression ’religious denomination’ may be defied 751 with less  difficulty. As  we mentioned earlier Mukherjea J, borrowed the  meaning of  the  word  denomination  from  the Oxford  Dictionary   and  adopted  it  to  define  religious denomination  as   "a  collection   of  individuals  classed together under  the same  name, a  religious  sect  or  body having a  common faith  and organisation and designated by a distinctive name".  The followers of Ramanuja, the followers of Madhwacharya,  the followers  of Vallabha,  the  Chishtia Soofies have  been found  or assumed  by  the  Court  to  be religious denominations. It will be noticed that these sects possessed no  distinctive name except that of their founder- teacher and  had no  special organisation  except  a  vague, loose-un-knit one. The really distinctive feature about each one of  these sects was a shared belief in the tenets taught by the  teacher-founder. We  take care  to mention here that whatever the  ordinary features  of a religious denomination may be considered to be, all are not of equal importance and surely the  common faith  of  the  religious  body  is  more important than the other features. It is, perhaps, necessary to  say   that  judicial   definitions  are   not  statutory definitions, they are mere explanations, every word of which is not to be weighed in golden scales. Law has a tendency to harden with  the passage of time and judicial pronouncements are made  to assume the form of statutory pronouncements. So soon as  a word  or  expression  occur  in  the  statute  is judicially defined,  the tendency is to try to interpret the language employed  by the  judges in the judicial definition as if  it has  been transformed into a statutory definition. That  is   wrong.  Always,   words  and  expressions  to  be interpreted are  those employed in the statute and not those used  by   judges  for   felicitous  explanation.   Judicial definition, we  repeat, is  explanatory and  not definitive. One remark requires to be added here. Religious denomination has not to owe allegiance to any parent religion. The entire following of  a religion  may be  no more than the religious denomination. This  may particularly  be so  in the  case of small religious  groups or  ‘developing’ religions, that is, religions in the formative stage.      We may  now consider whether Aurobindoism-if one may be excused for  using the  word ‘Aurobindoism’ to describe what Shri  Aurobindo   taught  and  practised  and  what  he  was understood by his followers to have taught and practised-was a religion and whether the followers of Shri Aurobindo could be called a religious denomination.      Shri Aurobindo  was a poet, a savant, a philosopher and a mystic. Was he or was he not a religious teacher ? 752      The Encyclopaedia  Brittanica (1978  Edition) describes him as "seer, poet and Indian nationalist who originated the philosophy of  cosmic salvation through spiritual evolution, a divine  existence that will appear through the development of the  "agnostic man"  to usher in a transcendant spiritual age in  which man  and the  universe are  destined to become divine". The  Encyclopaedia goes  on  to  say,  "he  devoted himself for  the rest  of his life solely to the development of his  unique philosophy. There (at Pondicherry) he founded an ashrama (retreat) as an international cultural centre for spiritual development, attracting students from all over the world. The  only requirement for entrance was a sincere wish to develop spiritually."

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    "According to  Aurobindo’s theory  of cosmic salvation, the paths  to union  with Brahman  are two-way  streets,  or channels, Enlightment  comes to  man from  above, while  the spirital mind  (supermind)  of  man  strives  through  logic illumination to  reach up-ward  from below.  When these  two forces blend in an individual, agnostic man is created. This logic illumination  transcends both reason and intuition and eventually leads  to the  freeing of the individual from the bonds of  individuality and,  by extension  all mankind will eventually achieve mukti (liberation)".      "Thus, Aurobindo  created a dialectic mode of salvation not only  for the  individual but for all mankind. Energy of sachidananda ("existence,  thought, joy")  comes  down  from Brahman (thesis)  to meet  energy from  the supermind of man striving upward  toward spirituality  (antithesis) and melds in man  to create a new spiritual superman (synthesis). From these  evolved   divine  beings,   a  divine  universe  also evolved."      Under the  head ‘History  of  Hinduism’.  Encyclopaedia Brittanica again refers to Aurobindo and says :      "Another modern  teacher whose  doctrines have had some influence outside  India was  Sri Aurobindo,  who began  his career  as  a  revolutionary.  He  withdrew  from  politics, however,  and   settled  in   Pondicherry,  then   a  French possession. There  he established an ashrama (a retreat) and achieved a  high reputation  as a sage. His followers looked on him  as the first incarnate manifestation of super-beings whose evolution  he prophesied,  and apprently  he  did  not discourage this  belief. After  his death, the leadership of the Aurobindo  Ashram was  taken over  by "the  Mother", Mme Mira 753 Richard, a  French-woman who  had been  one of  his  leading disciples."      The Encyclopaedia  Brittanica refers to Aurobindo again under the head ‘Idealism’ and says :      "Aurobindo,  reinterpreting   the   Indian   Idealistic heritage in the light of his own Western education, rejected the maya doctrine of illusion, replacing it with the concept of evolution,  aguring that the "illumination of individuals will lead to the emergence of a divine community". Aurobindo founded the  influential Pondicherry Ashram, a religious and philosophical community, and headed it until his death."      The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (1972 Edition) says,           "Shri Aurobindo  was an  Indian metaphysician  and      founder of new religious movement with head-quarters at      Pondicherry-The religious  movement associated with him      has increased its following in India, and has made some      converts in  the West.........God  must ‘descent’  into      human experience.  This illumination of individual will      lead    to     the    emergence    of    a    divinised      community...............Aurobindo produced  a synthesis      between older  Indian religious  ideas  and  the  world      affirming attitudes of Christian theism."      The  Dictionary   of  Comparative   Religion  says   of Aurobindo :           "According to  Aurobindo, there  is a  progressive      evolution of  the divine being through matter to higher      spiritual forms,  and the Aurobindo movement is held to      represent vanguard  of this evolutionary process in our      own times.  Aurobindo practised and taught an ‘integral      yoga’ in  which meditative  and spiritual exercises are      integrated with  physical,  cultural  and  intellectual      pursuits."      Frederic Spiegelberg,  in his book ‘Living Religions of

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the World’ refers to Shri Aurobindo :           "We pass  beyond specific religions to a synthetic      vision  of  the  religious  impulse  itself,  a  vision      designed to embrace all previous and future history all      previous and  future paths.  Shri Aurobindo  is  a  man      worshipped by hundreds of thousands and respected by 754      millions............In his retreat at Pondicherry he is      less the  philosopher of  Hinduism than the philosopher      of  religion  in  general,  the  voice  of  that  which      comparative religion leaves undisputed."      On  the   topic  Religion,   the  Gazetteer  of  India, published by the Govt. of India, has this to say :           "Shri Aurobindo  gave new  interpretations of  the      vedas and  The Vedanta,  and in his Essays on the Gita,      he expounded  what he  called  "the  integral  view  of      life". His great work, the Life Divine, is a summing up      of his  philosophy of  "the Descent  of the Divine into      Matter". The importance of Sri Aurobindo’s mission lies      in his attempt to explain the true methods of Yoga."      It is  clear from  these extracts  that the  world  and India treated  and respected  Shri Aurobindo  as a religious teacher and  the founder  of a  new religious movement whose principal thesis  was the  evolution  or  transformation  of humanity into  divinity through  the  practice  of  Integral Yoga. One  may or  may not accept Shri Aurobindo’s thesis or teaching, but, without doubt, it was unique ; without doubt, it was  novel; without  doubt, it  had never  been so taught before. Shri  Aurobindo first conceived the theory of Ascent and Descent,  involution and  evolution. He  was  the  first expositor of  the Integral  Yoga. He  expressly professed to depart from the Yoga of the Gita and dissented from the Maya Vada. Pedestrian  minds like  ours may  not  understand  the niceties of  the metaphysical  exercises involved. We do not desire to  enter into  any polemics  over  Shri  Aurobindo’s teachings as it is not within the judicial province to do so except to  the limited  extent of  finding out  whether  his teachings have the necessary spiritual content to qualify as religious doctrine  and how  his followers  understood those teachings. So,  we refrain  from quoting Shri Aurobindo. But this fact  stands out prominently that whatever else he was, he  truly  was  a  religious  teacher  and  taught  and  was understood  to   have  taught  new  religious  doctrine  and practice.  I  fail  to  see  why  ‘Aurobindoism’  cannot  be classified, if  not as  a new  religion, as  a new  sect  of Hinduism and  why the  followers of Shri Aurobindo cannot be termed a religious denomination. 755      Shri Aurobindo,  of  course,  disclaimed  that  he  was founding a religion. No great religious teacher ever claimed that he  was founding  a new  religion or  a new  school  of religious  thought.   The  question   is  not  whether  Shri Aurobindo refused  to claim or denied that he was founding a new religion  or a  new  school  of  religious  thought  but whether his disciples and the community thought so. There is no  doubt   that  they  did,  not  only  his  disciples  and followers, but  religious leaders  all the world over and of all faiths.      If  the   followers  of  Shri  Aurobindo  constitute  a ‘religious denomination’,  as, to  my mind, they undoubtedly do, the  members of  Shri Aurobindo  Society are certainly a distinct  and   identifiable  section   of  the   ‘religious denomination’. The  members of the society are followers and disciples of  Shri Aurobindo.  The  society  was  formed  to preach  and   propagate  the  beliefs  and  ideals  of  Shri

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Aurobindo. The  primary object  of the  society was "To make known to  the members  of the public in general the aims and ideals of  Shri Aurobindo  and the  Mother, their  system of Integral Yoga and to work for its fulfilment in all possible ways and  for the  attainment of  a spiritualised society as envisaged by  Shri Aurobindo." It is nobody’s case that this is not  the principal  object of  the society  or that it is only a  facade for  other activities. However, it was argued that  the   Society  had  represented  itself  as,  ‘a  non- political, non-religious organisation’ and claimed exemption from income  tax on  the  ground  that  it  was  engaged  in educational,  cultural   and  scientific  research.  If  the society consists  of the  disciples  and  followers  of  Sri Aurobindo, if its primary object is to profess, practise and propagate the  system of  Integral Yoga, and, if, therefore, it  is   a  section   of  a   religious  denomination,   the circumstance  that   it  is   engaged  in   several  secular activities and  has represented itself to be a non-religious organisation for  certain purposes  cannot detract  from the fact that it is a section of a religious denomination within the  meaning  of  Art.  26  Therefore,  we  must  hold,  the Aurobindo Society  is a  section of a religious denomination within the  meaning of  the expression  in Art.  26  of  the Constitution.      But,  the   question  is   has  the  Fundamental  Right guaranteed by  Art.  26  been  infringed  by  the  Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1980. We have to notice straight away that  the Act did not take away or purport to take away the management of the Shri Aurobindo Society. What it did or purported to do was "to provide for the 756 taking over,  in the  public interest,  of the management of Auroville for  a limited  period and  for matters  connected therewith or incidental thereto." The long preamble says,           "Whereas   Shri    Aurobindo   Society,   a   non-      governmental organisation  had been  a channel of funds      for the  setting up  of a  cultural township  known  as      Auroville, where  people  of  different  countries  are      expected to  live together  in harmony in one community      and are  expected to  engage in  cultural, educational,      scientific and other pursuits aiming at human unity."                x         x         x           "AND WHEREAS Auroville was developed as a cultural      township with  the aid of funds received from different      organisations in  and outside  India as  also from  the      substantial grants  received from the Central and State      Governments;           AND WHEREAS  pursuant to  the complaints  received      with regard  to the  misuse of  funds by  Sri Aurobindo      Society, a  committee was set up under the chairmanship      of  the   Lieutenant-Governor   of   Pondicherry   with      representatives of  the Government of Tamil Nadu and of      the Ministry of Home Affairs in the Central Government,      and the said committees had, after a detailed scrutiny,      of  the  accounts  of  Shri  Aurobindo  Society,  found      instances of  serious irregularities  in the management      of the  said Society,  misutilisation of  its funds and      their diversion to other purposes ;           AND WHEREAS  in view  of the  serious difficulties      which have  arisen with  regard to  the  management  of      Auroville, it  is necessary to take over, for a limited      period, the management, thereof and any delay in taking      over  the  management  of  Auroville  would  be  highly      detrimental  to   the  interests   and  objectives   of      Auroville;

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    The long preamble itself explains what Auroville is. S. 3(c) of the Act defines Auroville as meaning "so much of the undertakings as  form part  of, or  are  relatable  to,  the township which  is known  as Auroville  and the  charter  of which  proclaimed  by  the  ‘Mother’  on  the  23rd  day  of February, 1968". 757      Now, the  idea of  Auroville was conceived by Madame M. Alfasse,  affectionately   and  respectfully  known  to  the disciples and followers of Shri Aurobindo as the Mother. The idea  of   a   cultural   township   which   would   promote international understanding and world peace had great appeal to  the   Government  of   India  and   the  United  Nations Educational, Scientific  and Cultural  Organisation and they extended their  support to  the project.  But, things turned out to  be  not  so  smooth-sailing  after  all.  There  was dissension among  the members of the Shri Aurobindo Society. Things came  to such  a  pass  that  the  impugned  Act  was necessitated. Misra J. has narrated the facts leading to the intervention of parliament. Parliament concerned itself with the management  of Auroville only and with no other activity of the  Shri Aurovindo  Society, including  ‘its affairs  in matters  of  religion’.  In  fact,  section  4(2)  makes  it explicit that, except for matters relating to the management of Auroville,  the provisions  of the  West Bengal Societies Registration  Act,   1961,  under   which  the  Society  was registered, shall  continue to  apply to  the Society in the same manner  as before.  Since  the  only  activity  of  the Society which  was touched  by the Act was the management of Auroville, the  question  arises  whether  Auroville  is  an institution established  and maintained  for  religious  and charitable purposes  and whether its management of Auroville is ‘a matter of religion’. Auroville is a township and not a place of  worship. It  is a  township dedicated,  not to the practice and  propagation of  any religious  doctrine but to promote international understanding and world peace, surely, a secular and not a religious activity. The highest that can be said in favour of Auroville being a religious institution or its  management being  a religious matter, is that it was conceived by  the Mother  and shaped  and sculpted  by  Shri Aurobindo’s disciples and followers in the pursuit of one of the ideas  and ideals  of Shri  Aurobindo, a great religious teacher. On  the other  hand, the ideal itself, that is, the promotion of  international understanding and world peace is by no  means a  religious ideal  and it  was because  of the nature of  the ideal  that the  Government of  India and the UNESCO adopted the project. Shri Aurobindo himself was not a mere religious teacher. He was a visionary, a humanist and a nationalist who  had blossomed  into an internationalist. It appears, therefore,  that Auroville, though the child of the Mother  and   though  nurtured   by  the  devotees  of  Shri Aurobindo, has  an individuality, distinctly secular, of its own. The  management of the International, cultural township of Auroville  is not,  in our opinion, a matter of religion. We  have   mentioned  earlier   that  laws   regulating   or restricting any  economic,  financial,  political  or  other secular 758 activity which may be associated with religious practice are excluded from the guarantee of freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practise and propagate religion. We have  also  pointed  out  that  the  administration  of  the property of  a religious  denomination is different from the right of  the  religious  denomination  to  manage  its  own affairs in  matters of  religion and  that laws  may be made

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which regulate  the right  to administer  the property  of a religious  denomination.   Questions  merely   relating   to administration of  properties belonging to a religious group or institution  are not  matters of religion to which clause (b) of Art. 26 applies. It has been so decided in the Shirur Mutt case  as well  as other  cases following  it.  We  are, therefore,  of   the  view   that  the  Auroville  Emergency Provisions Act  which  provides  for  the  taking  over  the management of Auroville for a limited period does not offend the  rights   guaranteed  by   Arts.  25   and  26   of  the Constitution.      A passing  reference was  also made  in the  course  of argument to  Arts 29  and 30 of the Constitution, and it was said that  the rights guaranteed by those Articles were also infringed. We  are entirely  at a loss to understand how the rights guaranteed  by Arts.  29 and  30 can  be said to have been infringed by the Auroville Emergency Provisions Act. No section of  citizens having  a culture  of its  own has been denied the  right to  conserve that culture and no religious minority has  been denied  the right  to  establish  and  to administer an educational institution of its choice.      On the  several other  questions  argued  before  us  I accept the  conclusion of  Misra J.  The Writ  Petitions are accordingly dismissed but in the circumstances there will be no order regarding costs.      MISRA J.  The first  two petitions  under Article 32 of the Constitution  of India filed in this Court and the third under Article  226 of the Constitution filed in the Calcutta High Court  and later  on transferred to this Court, seek to challenge the  vires of the Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Ordinance,  1980  (Ordinance  No.  19  of  1980),  later  on replaced by  the Auroville  (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1980 (Act No.  59 of  1980). The  fourth is  an appeal by special leave against  the  order  of  the  Division  Bench  of  the Calcutta High  Court dated  21st of  November, 1980 vacating the interim  order passed  by a  Single Judge  in  the  writ petition.  All   these  cases   raise  common  questions  of constitutional importance  and, therefore,  they were posted before the Constitution Bench. 759      Man as  a rational  being,  endowed  with  a  sense  of freedom and  responsibility, does  not remain satisfied with his material  existence. He  wants to  know and  realise the meaning of  his life.  It is this perennial urge in man that inspires him  to indulge  in great  creative activities.  He creates  great  cultures  and  civilisations  and  tries  to realise the meaning and value of life in and through them.      To the  biologist life  is indefinable.  It  cannot  be defined  in  terms  of  any  things.  The  biologists  have, however, explained  and illustrated characteristics of life. But no formulation of the nature and characteristics of life has won  general acceptance.  It means  that the insignia of life have  not as  yet been comprehended fully. Life has not been viewed  in its proper perspective. It still seems to be a riddle, a mystery.      Life appears to be a mystery not only to the scientists but also to the philosophers. Philosophers may be said to be rather more  conscious of  the difficulties that the concept of life  involves than the scientists. A philosopher is also aware of  the fact  that unless  one is  able to  fathom the depths of  life and  has a full comprehension of its nature, one cannot  understand and  determine the  nature  of  human personality and its destiny.      Similar other deeper and ultimate problems of life have been agitating  the mind  of seers  and  philosophers  viz.,

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Where did  the world come from ? Was it created or evolved ? Is there  any unity  in diversity  ? Each  thinker tried  to solve the  ultimate problems  in his  own way.  By and large they believed  there is  a real  creative force  behind  the process of  the world.  Some called it as God, the others as ultimate  truth,  the  conscience.  According  to  some  the objects, if  left to themselves, would remain motionless and for their  initial movement  they must  have  required  some external agency  which might  have set  the  universal  ball rolling.      In early  ages when  man knew  little about the laws of nature, he  attributed all  changes  in  nature  to  certain agencies, which  due partly to his egocentric way of viewing things  and   partly  to   his  conscious  or  sub-conscious awareness of  the supremacy of man in the whole hierarchy of things in  nature, were  conceived after  the image  of man. Later on,  in view of the supremacy of kings in all walks of life and  their services  to society,  these  unseen  mighty agencies were  fashioned specifically  after them. Since God was conceived  to be  the supreme  among such  agencies.  He naturally was  sought to be represented by the supreme among kings. Thus anthropomorphism, i.e. the idea of 760 God in  terms of human figure is partly due to ignorance and partly due  to the  influence of  uncommon  persons  in  the society.      During 18th  and 19th  centuries the  entire scientific thought sought  to explain  the  universe  mechanically  and strived to  do away  with  God  completely.  If  it  allowed anything like  God to  enter its  universe at all, it did so only after transforming Him into a mechanical principle.      Later  on   with  the  formulation  of  the  theory  of relativity this isolationist view of things has given way to one of  mutual relatedness of each object to every one else. Recognition of the immense potentiality of dynamism inherent in the  mutual relatedness  of objects  in the  universe has precluded the  necessity of  an extra-cosmic or metaphysical principle, such  as the God of Aristotle who was supposed to have existed  prior to the beginning of the world, and given it the  first stroke  of movement  resulting  in  continuous motion ever since.      Thus, the  idea of  God has  led to  more or  less  its adjustment to  fresh acquisition of knowledge in each epoch. A view  of God  which fails  to  do  that  tends  to  become discarded in  favour of  a new one. If it fails to keep pace with the  expanding horizon  of knowledge, it begins to lose its ground  and shrink  into a  mere cult of only historical importance, it  becomes fossilised  and is liable to crumble at the vital touch of the present.      Our scriptures  proclaimed from  the  very  start  that there is only one reality in the world which is described in different ways :           "Ekam Sad Wipra Bahuda Vadanti."      One of  such Indian  sages  and  philosophers  was  Sri Aurobindo. He  was born on August 15, 1872 in Calcutta. When he was  barely seven  years old  he was taken to England for education. In  view  of  his  amazing  ability  in  learning languages he  was offered scholarship to join Kings College, Cambridge.   There   he   distinguished   himself   by   his extraordinary ability  to compose Greek and Latin verses. He is said  to have  won all  the prizes  for the year in Kings College for  Greek and  Latin verses. He sailed for India in 1893 and  settled down  at  Baroda.  He  served  in  several capacities in  Baroda State,  sometimes as  an administrator and at others as Professor of French and English. During his

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stay there he learnt Sanskrit. 761      The years  from 1902  to 1910  were stormy ones for Sri Aurobindo as he embarked on a course of action to free India from British  rule. As  a result of his political activities and revolutionary  literary efforts  he was  sent to jail in 1908. Two  years later  he fled from British India to refuge in the French Mandate of Pondicherry (modern Pondicherry) in South-East  India.  He  took  a  decision  to  give  up  all political activities  so as  to concentrate himself with the life of meditation and yoga at Pondicherry.      Madam M.  Alfassa, a  French Lady, who came to be known as ’The  Mother’ became  a disciple  of Sri  Aurobindo. Very soon more  and more  disciples came to join him from various parts of  India and  abroad and  thus ’the Ashram’ came into being. The  disciples and devoted followers of Sri Aurobindo and the  Mother with  a view  to propagate  and practise the ideals and  beliefs of Sri Aurobindo formed a Society called Sri Aurobindo  Society in  the  year  1960.  The  petitioner Society at  all material  times was  and is  still a Society duly registered  under the  provisions of  the  West  Bengal Societies Registration Act, 1961. This Society is completely distinct from  Aurobindo Ashram  in Pondicherry. The Society was established  and registered  for the purpose of carrying out inter alia the following objects in and outside India:      (i)  To make  known to  the members  of the  public  in           general the  aims and  ideals of Sri Aurobindo and           the Mother,  their system  of integral yoga and to           work for  its fulfilment  in all possible ways and           for the  attainment of  a spiritualised society as           envisaged by Sri Aurobindo;      (ii) To Train  selected students  and teachers from all           over the world in the integral system or education           i.e.,  spiritual,   psychic,  mental,   vital  and           physical;      (iii)To help  in cash  and/or kind by way of donations,           gifts, subsidies and in also other ways in the all           round development  of Sri  Aurobindo International           Centre of Education and to help similar centres of           education;      (iv) To establish  study groups, libraries, Ashrams and           other   institutions,    centres,   branches   and           societies for  study and practice of integral yoga           of Sri  Aurobindo and  the Mother  and to help the           existing ones; 762      (v)  To establish  centres of  physical culture, sports           and volunteer  organisations for  inculcating  and           promoting the  spirit of  discipline, co-operation           and service  to others and to undertake activities           for promotion of health and bodily perfection:      (vi) To organise,  encourage, promote and assist in the           study, research and pursuit of science, literature           and fine arts;      (vii)To enquire,  purchase, build, construct or take on           lease or  in  exchange  or  hire  any  movable  or           immovable property, or gifts or privileges; and      (viii)Generally to  do all other acts, deeds and things           necessary, conductive,  suitable or  incidental to           or for  the attainment of the above objects or any           of them or part of them.      The management  of the  Society vested in its Executive Committee. Rules  and regulations  have been duly framed for the management  of the Society and also for safe custody and protection of its assets, properties and funds.

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    Sri Aurobindo  Society (hereinafter referred to as ’the Society’) preaches  and propagates  the ideals and teachings of Sri  Aurobindo inter  alia through  its numerous  centres scattered throughout  India by way of weekly meetings of its members.      The Mother as the founder-president also conceived of a project  of   setting  up   a  cultural  township  known  as ’Auroville’ where people of different countries are expected to engage  in cultural, educational and scientific and other pursuits aiming  at human  unity. The  Society  has  been  a channel of  funds for setting up the cultural township known as Auroville.      At the  initiative of  the  Government  of  India,  the United  Nations   Educational,   Scientific   and   Cultural Organisation being of the opinion that the Auroville project would  contribute   to   international   understanding   and promotion of  peace sponsored  the project  by  proposing  a resolution to this effect at its General Conference in 1966. This resolution  was unanimously adopted at this Conference. By a further resolution passed in 1961 the UNESCO 763 invited its member States and international non-governmental organisations to participate in the development of Auroville as an  international cultural township to bring together the values  of   different  cultures   and  civilisations  in  a harmonious  environment  with  integrated  living  standards which correspond to man’s physical and spiritual needs. 1970 UNESCO had  directed its Director-General to take such steps as may  be feasible,  within  the  budgetary  provisions  to promote  the   development  of  Auroville  as  an  important international  cultural  programme.  Sri  Aurobindo  Society received large  funds in  the shape of grants from different organisations in  India and  abroad for  development of  the township. The  assistance included  contributions  from  the State Governments  of the  value of  Rs 66.50  lakhs and the Central Government of the value of Rs. 26.14 lakhs.      After the  death of the Mother on 17th of November 1973 a number  of problems of varying nature affecting the smooth running of  the project  cropped up. The Government of India on receiving  complaints about  mismanagement of the project and misuse  of funds  by Sri  Aurobindo  Society  set  up  a committee  under   the  chairmanship   of  the  Governor  of Pondicherry with  representatives of the Government of Tamil Nadu and  of the  Ministry of  Home Affairs  in the  Central Government to  look into  the matter.  The committee  made a detailed scrutiny  of the  accounts of Sri Aurobindo Society relating  to   Auroville  and  found  instances  of  serious irregularities   in   the   management   of   the   Society, misutilisation of  its funds  and their  diversion to  other purposes. Further,  various other  serious difficulties  had arisen plaguing  the management  of Auroville  and rendering thereby any further growth of the township almost impossible in the  circumstances that  taking over  the  management  of Auroville became imperative to ensure growth of the township in tune with its objectives.      Keeping in  view the  international  character  of  the project and  considering  the  government’s  involvement  in actively sponsoring  the project  through UNESCO, the growth and  management  of  the  project  had  become  the  primary responsibility of the Government of India. The ideals of the project formed  India’s highest aspirations, which could not be allowed  to be  defeated  or  frustrated.  Sri  Aurobindo Society had lost complete control over the situation and the members of  the Auroville approached the Government of India to give  protection against  oppression and victimisation at

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the hands  of the said Society. There were internal quarrels between the various factions of Sri Aurobindo Society. There have also been instances 764 of law  and order  situation. Financial  management  of  the project  has   not  been  sound  and  several  instances  of mismanagement, diversion  of funds  have  been  revealed.  A large sum  of money  was given  by Sri  Aurobindo Society to AURO Construction-an  agency whose  status  is  not  at  all defined, whose  functions and  capabilities  for  taking  up large construction  works also  had not been made known. The Government in  the  circumstances  could  not  be  a  silent spectator to  the mismanagement of the project and intereine quarrels amongst  its members,  which if  not checked  could lead to  the destruction  of the project so nobly conceived. The Government,  therefore, decided  to issue a Presidential ordinance.  After  the  filing  of  the  writ  petition  the ordinance has  now been replaced by the Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1980.      The  constitutional   validity  of  the  Act  has  been challenged on four grounds:      1.   Parliament has  no legislative competence to enact           the impugned statute.      2.   The impugned Act infringes Articles 25, 26, 29 and           30 of the Constitution.      3.   The impugned Act is violative of Article 14 of the           Constitution; and      4.   The Act was mala fide.      We take  up the  first ground  first. According  to Mr. Soli  Sorabjee,   counsel  for  petitioners,  the  Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1980, hereinafter referred to as the impugned Act, is a law relating to a matter in the State Legislative List  and is,  therefore, beyond the legislative competence of  Parliament, hence  unconstitutional and void. The impugned Act, according to him, provides for taking over the management  of Auroville  for a  limited period from the Society. The  management  of  Auroville  was  prior  to  the impugned Act  vested in the Governing Body/Board of Trustees of the  Society under  the Provisions  of  the  West  Bengal Societies Registration  Act and  memorandum  and  rules  and regulations of  the Society, as is evident from section 5(5) of the impugned Act itself. The society was registered under the  Societies   Registration  Act,   1860  but   after  the enforcement of  the West  Bengal Societies Registration Act, 1961 the Society was deemed to be 765 registered  under   that  Act.  The  West  Bengal  Societies Registration Act  (for short ’the West Bengal Act’) contains specific provisions  to deal  with the  Society  adequately. Sections 22  and 23  of the  West  Bengal  Act  empower  the Registrar of  the Societies  to call  for an  information or explanation relating to the management of the affairs of any society registered  thereunder and  also to investigate into the affairs  of the  society, if  there  were  circumstances suggesting that  the society  was guilty of mismanagement of its affairs  or of any unlawful fact. The Registrar has also the power to prosecute and punish those persons found guilty of mismanagement.  Under section  26 of the Act a society is also liable to be dissolved by the order of the Registrar on the  ground   inter  alia   of   mismanagement.   Obviously, therefore, the  West  Bengal  Act  contains  in  built  self contained provisions  for dealing  with the mismanagement of the registered societies.      The  West  Bengal  Act  is  a  legislation  exclusively relatable to  Entry 32  of List  II of Seventh Schedule. The

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provisions of the West Bengal Act apply to the Society as is evident from  section 2(f)  and (g)  of  the  impugned  Act. Section 4(2)  of the  impugned Act,  however,  excludes  the application of  certain provisions of the West Bengal Act to the Society  and declares  that the  provisions of  the West Bengal Act  will continue  to apply  to the  Society subject however, to  such exclusions.  Section 8(2) provides that on relinquishment of  management by  the Central Government the management of  the property  of the  Society forming part or relatable to  Auroville shall  vest in the Governing Body of the Society  and shall  be carried on in accordance with the provisions of  the  West  Bengal  Act.  Section  11  of  the impugned Act  gives over-riding  effect to  the impugned Act over all  other Acts  (including the  West Bengal  Act)  and instruments thereunder. Therefore, the object and purpose of the impugned Act is to take away the management of Auroville from the Society and to bring it under the management of the Central Government under the provisions of the impugned Act. This process necessarily involves during the takeover period the suspension  of the provisions of the West Bengal Act and the memorandum and rules in so far as they are applicable to the  management   of   the   Auroville   by   the   Society. Consequently,  the   impugned  Act   for  a  limited  period abrogates,   suspends   or   temporarily   repeals   certain provisions of  the West  Bengal Act  or in  other words  the State Act  is  pro  tanto  overborne  by  the  Central  Act. Therefore,  the   question  arises  whether  Parliament  has legislative   competence    to   repeal,    permanently   or temporarily, any provisions of the West 766 Bengal Act  which is  a law made by the State Legislature in the exercise  of its  exclusive legislative competence under Entry 32 of the State Legislative List.      It  was   contended  for   the  petitioners   that  the legislature has  no authority  to repeal  statutes which  it could not  directly enact.  The power to repeal or alter the statute is co-extensive with the power of direct legislation of  a  legislative  body.  In  support  of  this  contention reliance  was  placed  on  the  Privy  Council  decision  in Attorney General  for Ontario  v. Attorney  General for  the Dominion(1). The  Parliament has  no competence to enact the West Bengal Act, and therefore it had no power to repeal the provisions of  the West  Bengal Act  by  the  impugned  Act. Inasmuch as  the Parliament has sought to repeal or override certain  provisions   of  the  West  Bengal  Act  which  are referable to Entry 32 in List II, and are exclusively within the competence of the State Legislature, the impugned Act by Parliament is without legislative competence and hence void.      It was  further contended  for the petitioners that the proper approach  to the  question is  to see if the impugned legislation is  covered by  any of the entries in list II of the Seventh  Schedule. It  is not  at all necessary to probe into the question as to whether the impugned legislation can be covered  by any  of the  entries of List I or List III of the Seventh  Schedule. Reliance  was placed  on the Union of India v.  H.S. Dhillon(2)  wherein the following proposition was laid down :           "It seems  to us that the best way of dealing with      the question  of the  validity of  the impugned Act and      with the contentions of the parties is to ask ourselves      two questions,  first, is  the impugned Act legislation      with respect  to entry 49 List II ? and secondly, if it      is not,  it is  beyond the  legislative  competence  of      Parliament ?      The positive  case  of  the  petitioners  is  that  the

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subject matter  of the  impugned Act is covered by entry 32, List II  of the  Seventh Schedule. The Solicitor General for the Union of India, however, tried to bring the impugned Act within the  four corners  of item  44, List I of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution.      It may  be pointed  out at  the very  outset  that  the function of  the Lists  is not to confer powers. They merely demarcate the 767 legislative fields.  The entries in the three Lists are only legislative heads  or fields of legislation and the power to legislate is  given to  appropriate legislature  by Articles 245 and  248 of the Constitution. It would be appropriate at this stage to read entry 32, List II and entry 44, List I of the Seventh Schedule :      Entry 32, List II           "Incorporation,  regulation   and  winding  up  of      corporations, other than those specified in List I, and      universities  ;   unincorporated   trading,   literary,      scientific,   religious   and   other   societies   and      associations; co-operative societies."      Entry 44, List I:           "Incorporation,  regulation   and  winding  up  of      corporations, whether  trading or not, with objects not      confined to one State, but not including universities."      For the  petitioners, however,  it was  urged that  the registration of  the Society  under the West Bengal Act does not make  it a  corporation. Halsbury’s Laws of England, 3rd Edn., Vol. 9, p. 4, deals with corporations in the following terms:           "A corporation  aggregate has  been defined  as  a      collection of  individuals united into one body under a      special denomination, having perpetual succession under      an artificial form, and vested by the policy of the law      with the  capacity of  acting in several respects as an      individual,  particularly   of  taking   and   granting      property, of  contracting obligations  and of suing and      being sued,  of enjoying  privileges and  immunities in      common,  and  of  exercising  a  variety  of  political      rights, more or less extensive, according to the design      of the  institution or  the powers  conferred upon  it,      either at the time of the creation or at any subsequent      period of its existence."      A  corporation   has,  therefore,  only  one  capacity, namely, the  corporate capacity.  On an  analysis  it  would appear that the essential elements in the legal concept of a corporation  are:  (1)  a  continuous  identity,  i.e.,  the original member  or members  or his  or their successors are one, (2)  the persons  to be  incorporated, (3)  the name by which the persons are incorporated, (4) a place, and 768 (5) words  sufficient in  law to  show incorporation. In law the individual  incorporators are  members of  which  it  is composed or  something wholly different from the corporation itself, for  a corporation is a legal person just as much as an individual.  A corporation aggregate can express its will by deed under a common seal.      The Society  was registered,  as stated  earlier, under the Societies Registration Act and later on was deemed to be registered under the West Bengal Societies Registration Act, 1961. Whether  such a registered society can be held to be a corporation in  the light  of the functions of a corporation quoted above ? In the Board of Trustees, Ayurvedic and Unani Tibia College  v. The State of Delhi and Ors.(1) it was held that a  society registered  under the Societies Registration

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Act may have the characteristics which are analogous to some of the  characteristics  of  a  corporation  but  is  not  a corporation. As  it  is  not  incorporated  and  remains  an unincorporated society,  therefore, it  must come  under the second part  of entry  32 of List II. Reliance was placed in this case  on Taff  Vale Railway  v. Amalgamated  Society of Servants.(2) The  petitioners also rely on Katra Educational Society v.  State of  Uttar Pradesh and Ors.(3) In that case also the  appellant  was  a  society  registered  under  the Societies Registration  Act 21  of 1860,  which conducts  an educational  institution   styled   ’Dwarka   Prasad   Girls Intermediate College’  at Allahabad.  The management  of the affairs of  the society  was entrusted  by the memorandum of association to  an executive  committee whose membership was confined to  the members  of the  society. The  Intermediate Education  Act   was  subsequently   passed  by   the  State Legislature. Section  8 of  the  Act  authorised  the  State Government to  promulgate regulations  in respect of matters covered by  sections 16A  to 161  of the  Act. The  Regional Inspector of Girls Schools called upon the society to submit and  get   approved  a   scheme  of  administration  of  the institution managed  by  it.  The  sections  were  later  on modified by subsequent amendment. The society challenged the Act on  the  ground  that  it  was  beyond  the  legislative competence of the State legislature inasmuch as in substance it sought  to substitute  the provisions  of  the  Societies Registration Act,  1860, a  field of  legislation which  was exclusively within  the competence  of Parliament and in any case the  Act in  so far  as it  affected the  powers of the trustees of charitable institutions 769 could not  be enacted without conforming to the requirements of Article  254. The contention was repelled and it was held by this  Court, relying  on the Board of Trustees, Ayurvedic and Unani  Tibia College  v. The State of Delhi (supra) that by registration  under  the  Societies  Registration  Act  a society does not acquire corporate status. It cannot also be said that  the pith  and substance  of the  Act  relates  to charities  or   charitable  institutions  or  to  trusts  or trustees. It  was further  held that  the  true  nature  and character of  the Act  falls within  the express legislative power conferred by entry 11 of List II and merely because it incidentally  trenches   upon  or   affects   a   charitable institution  or   the  powers   of  the   trustees  of   the institution, it  will not  on that  account  be  beyond  the legislative authority of the State Legislature.      As the  Society is  an unincorporated society, says the counsel for  petitioners, the  impugned  Act  does  not  and cannot fall under entry 44 of List I of the Seventh Schedule and it  would fall  under entry 32 of List II of the Seventh Schedule and  once it  is covered by entry 32 of List II, it is not  at all necessary to examine whether it may or it may not fall in other two lists of the schedule.      On the  other hand,  the stand of the Union of India as well as  of the interveners, is that the first part of entry 32 of  List II is not attracted as the subject matter of the impugned Act  is not incorporation, regulation or winding up of a  corporation. It  has only taken over the management of Auroville from  the Society for a short period in respect of the property.  Auroville, of  which the  management has been taken over  by the Central Government under the impugned Act means so  much  of  the  undertaking  as  form  part  of  or relatable  to  the  cultural  township  which  is  known  as Auroville and  the charter  of which  was proclaimed  by the Mother on  25th day  of  February,  1968.  The  property  of

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Auroville is  situated not in West Bengal but in Pondicherry in  Tamil  Nadu.  The  fact  that  the  Society,  which  was registered under  the West Bengal Act, has been a channel of funds for  the  setting  up  of  the  cultural  township  of Auroville and  has been  managing some aspects of Auroville, does not bring Auroville under the domain of the West Bengal Act. The  right  of  management  of  property  is  itself  a property right.      The Solicitor  General also  tried to bring the subject matter of  the  impugned  legislation  under  various  other entries of  List I or List III of the Seventh Schedule viz., entries 10,  20, 41  and 42 of List III and entry 10 of List I. But it is not necessary for us to examine 770 whether the subject matter of the impugned legislation falls under any  of the  entries of  List I or List III if once we hold that  the subject matter does not fall within the ambit of any of the entries of List II. Even if the subject matter of the  impugned legislation  is not covered by any specific entry of  List I  or List  III, it  will be  covered by  the residuary entry 97 of List I.      In our  opinion the impugned Act even incidentally does not trench  upon the field covered by the West Bengal Act as it is  in no  way related  to constitution,  regulation  and winding up  of the Society In R.C. Cooper v. Union(1) it was laid  down  that  a  law  relating  to  the  business  of  a corporation is  not a  law with  respect to  regulation of a corporation.      Having  heard   the  counsel   for  the   parties,  our considered  opinion  is  that  the  subject  matter  of  the impugned Act  is not  covered by  entry 32 of List II of the Seventh Schedule. Even if the subject matter of the impugned Act is not covered by any specific entry of List I or III of the Seventh  Schedule of  the Constitution  it would  in any case be  covered by  the residuary  entry 97  of List I. The Parliament, therefore,  had the  legislative  competence  to enact the impugned Act.      This leads  us to  the second ground of attack, namely, the impugned  Act is violative of Articles 25, 26, 29 and 30 of the Constitution.      Article 25(1)  confers freedom  of conscience  and  the right freely to profess, practise and propagate religion. Of course, this  right is subject to public order, morality and health and  to  the  other  Articles  of  Part  III  of  the Constitution.  Sub-clause  (2)  of  this  Article,  however, provides that  nothing in  this  Article  shall  affect  the operation of  any existing  law or  prevent the  State  from making any law-      (a)  regulating or restricting any economic, financial,           political or  other secular  activity which may be           associated with religious practice;      (b)  providing for  social welfare  and reform  or  the           throwing open of Hindu religious institutions of a           public character  to all  classes and  sections of           Hindus. 771      Article 26  confers on  every religious denomination or any section  thereof, subject  to public order, morality and health, the right-      (a)  to   establish  and   maintain  institutions   for           religious and charitable purposes;      (b)  to manage its own affairs in matters of religion;      (c)  to own and acquire movable and immovable property;           and      (d)   to administer  such property  in accordance  with

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         law.      In order  to appreciate the contentions of the parties, it is  necessary  to  know  the  implication  of  the  words ’religion’ and ’religious denomination’. The word ’religion’ has not  been defined in the Constitution and indeed it is a term which is hardly susceptible of any rigid definition. In reply  to   a  question  on  Dharma  by  Yaksha,  Dharmaraja Yudhisthira said thus:           tarko pratisth,srutyo vibhinna           neko risiyasya matan pramanam           dharmaya tatwan nihitan guhayan           mahajano jein gatah sa pantha           Mahabharta-Aranyakaparvan 313.117.       (Formal logic is vascillating. Srutis are   contradict      ory. There  is no  single rishi whose opinion is final.      The principle  of Dharma  is hidden in a cave. The path      of the virtuous persons is the only proper course.)      The expression  ’Religion’ has, however, been sought to be defined in the ’Words and Phrases’, Permanent Edn., 36 A, p. 461 onwards, as given below:           "Religion is  morality, with a sanction drawn from      a future state of rewards and punishments.           The term  ’religion’ and  ’religious’ in  ordinary      usage are not rigid concepts. 772      ’Religion’  has   reference  to   one’s  views  of  his relations to  his Creator and to the obligations they impose of re-verence  for his being and character, and of obedience to his will.      The  word   ’religion’  in   the  primary  sense  (from ’religare, to  rebind-bind back),  imports,  as  applied  to moral questions,  only a  recognition of a conscious duty to obey restraining  principles of  conduct. Tn  such sense  we suppose there  is no  one who  will admit that he is without religion.      ’Religion’ is bond uniting man to God, and virtue whose purpose is  to render  God worship  due him as source of all being and principle of all government of things.      ’Religion’ has reference to man’s relation to divinity; to the  moral obligation of reverence and worship, obedience and submission, It is the recognition of God as as object of worship, love  and obedience;  right feeling  toward God, as highly apprehended.      ’Religion’ means the services and adoration of God or a god as  expressed in  forms  of  worship;  an  apprehension, awareness, or  conviction of  the  existence  of  a  Supreme Being; any  system of  faith, doctrine  and worship,  as the Christian  religion,   the  religions   of  the   orient;  a particular system of faith or worship.      The term  ’religion’ as  used  in  tax  exemption  law, simply includes:  (I) a belief, not necessarily referring to supernatural powers;  (2) a  cult,  involving  a  gregarious association openly  expressing the  belief; (3)  a system of moral practice  directly resulting  from an adherence to the belief; and  (4) an organization within the cult designed to observe the  tenets or  belief, the  content of  such belief being of no moment.      While ’religion’  in its  broadest sense  includes  all forms of  belief in the existence of superior beings capable of  exercising  power  over  the  human  race,  as  commonly accepted it  means the formal recognition of God, as members of societies  and associations,  and the  term, "a religious purpose’, as  used in the constitutional provision exempting from taxation property used for religious purposes, means 773

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    the use  of property  by a religious society or body of      persons as a place for public worship.           ’Religion’ is  squaring human life with superhuman      life.  Belief   in  a  superhuman  power  and  such  an      adjustment of  human activities  to the requirements of      that power  as may  enable the  individual believer  to      exist more  happily is  com mon to all ’religions’. The      term ’religion’  has reference  to one’s  views on  his      relations to  his creator,  and to the obligations they      impose of  reverence for  his being  and character  and      obdience to his will.           The term  ’religion’ has  reference to one’s views      of his relations to his Creator, and to the obligations      they impose  of reverence  for his being and character,      and of  obedience to  his will. With man’s relations to      his Maker and the obligations he may think they impose,      and the  manner in which an expression shall be made by      him of  his belief  on those  subjects, no interference      can be  permitted, provided always the laws of society,      designed to  secure its  peace and  prosperity, and the      morals of its people, are not interfered with."      These terms have also been judicially considered in The Commissioner, Hindu  Religious  Endowments,  Madras  v.  Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha  Swamiar of  Sri Shirur MUtt(1) where in the following proposition of law have been laid down:      (1)  Religion means  "a system  of beliefs or doctrines           which are  regarded  by  those  who  profess  that           religion as  conducive to  their  spiritual  well-           being".      (2)  A religion  is not  merely an opinion, doctrine or           belief. It  has its  outward expression in acts as           well.      (3)  Religion need not be theistic.      (4)  "Religious denomination" means a religious sect or           body having  a common  faith and  organisation and           designated by a distinctive name.      (5)  A   law   which   takes   away   the   rights   of           administration  from  the  hands  of  a  religious           denomination altogether 774           and vests  in another  authority would  amount  to           violation of the right guaranteed under clause (d)           of Art. 26."      The  aforesaid   propositions  have  been  consistently followed in  later cases  including  The  Durgah  Committee, Ajmer &  Anr. v.  Syed Hussain  Ali  &  Ors(1)  and  can  be regarded as well settled.      The words "religious denomination" in Article 26 of the Constitution must take their colour from the word ’religion’ and if  this be  so, the expression "religious denomination" must also satisfy three conditions:      (1)  It must  be a collection of individuals who have a           system of  beliefs or  doctrines which they regard           as conducive  to their  spiritual well-being, that           is, a common faith;      (2)  common organisation; and      (3)  designation by a distinctive name.      In view  of the  propositions laid down by the Court in the  aforesaid   reported  cases  we  have  to  examine  the teachings of  Sri Aurobindo to see whether they constitute a religion. It  will be appropriate at this stage to succintly deal with the teaching of Sri Aurobindo.      According  to   Sri  Aurobindo   there  is   a   divine consciousness pervading  the whole  universe. A  portion  of this consciousness  by  a  process.  Of  involution  through

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various planes  has finally resulted in the formation of the physical world, namely the stars, the planets, the earth and so on. Then came the reverse process of evolution i e., from stone to  plant, from plant to animal, from animal to man or in other words from matter to life, from life to mind and so on. This  evolution will  not stop  with man  who is  only a transitional  species.   The  evolution   would  go  further transforming man  into superman and the mind into supermind. The superman  according to  Sri Aurobindo  would be  totally different from man as man from animal and animal from plant. In  this   transformation  back   to  all  prevading  divine consciousness in  which man would become superman, man would lose his present character of body, vital and mind. His body would become a body of light, his vital a vital of light and his mind a mind of light. 775      This transformation,  or evolution of man into superman is A  bound to  take place but in the course of thousands of years. This process, however, according to Sri Aurobindo can be accelerated  by the practice of integral yoga. His theory of this transformation consists of two aspects:      (a)  An  inner  ascent  of  the  consciousness  to  the           Divine.      (b)  A descent  of Divine  consciousness in  the  mind,           vital and body.      The distinctive feature of Sri Aurobindo’s yoga is that it is universal. Any one born in any part of the world, born of parents  professing any  religion can accept his yoga. In short, he  originated the  philosophy  of  cosmic  salvation through spiritual  evolution.  Divine  existence  that  will appear through  the development  of the  agnostic  man  will usher into  a transcendental  spiritual age in which man and universe are destined to become divine. D      Thus, according  to Sri  Aurobindo’s theory  of  cosmic salvation the  paths of  union  with  Brahman  are  two  way streets or  channels. Enlightenment  comes to man from above while the  spiritual mind (supermind) of man strives through yogic illumination  to reach  upwards from below. When these two forces  blend in  an individual agnostic man is created. This yogic illumination transcends both reason and intuition and eventually  leads to  the freeing of the individual from the hands  of individuality and by exclusion of all mankind, will eventually  achieve Mukti  or liberation. Sri Aurobindo created  a   dialectic  mode   of  salvation  not  only  for individual but  for  all  mankind.  Energy  or  Sachidananda (existence, consciousness and joy) comes down from Brahma to meet energy  from the  supermind  of  man  striving  upwards towards his  spirituality (antithesis)  and melts  in man to create a  new spiritual  superman  (synthesis).  From  these divine beings a divine universe is also evolved.      The Divine,  though one,  has two aspects-one is static and the other dynamic. The dynamic side of the Divine is the energy or  the creative  side. People  in the  past realised only the  static aspect  of the Divine and did not know much of the  dynamic side as it is much more difficult to realise it. For  this reason,  the purpose  of the  creation was not understood by  them and they declared the world to be futile and deceptive.  That means  either the  Divine was unable to make a  perfect world  and He had Do purpose in the creation or 776 man  has   not  been   able  to  understand  the  same.  Sri Aurobindo’s yoga  gives the  full  experience  of  both  the aspects of  the Divine,  that is  why he  calls his Yoga the Integral Yoga  or the  Perfect Yoga.  Sri Aurobindo says the

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Divine is  real and His creation is bound to be real. He has shown to  the world  the purpose  of the  creation  and  has declared that  the world  is still in an imperfect condition passing  through   the   transitory   Period   towards   its perfection.      Man is a creature of this world and he cannot know much of things other than this world. He has, however, a capacity in himself to develop to the next stage of evolution because Nature cannot  stop with  imperfect results  and the present humanity must  evolve further  till the  final perfection is obtained.      We  look  at  things  and  happenings  from  the  oufer surface, having  no knowledge  whatsoever of the real causes and effects,  the different  forces and  influences  of  the subtle worlds  working behind them. We can see and feel only the results  on the  material plane  and nothing  more.  Our senses have  a very  limited scope  and they can give us the knowledge of  the things  which can only materialise. But in fact that  is not  all that  we are. We have another part in ourselves which  is veiled by the external consciousness and we call that as our soul-the spark of divinity within; which is one everywhere-the true self.      As our  sense give  us the  knowledge of  the  external things by directing our consciousness outwardly, in the same way if  we can  direct our  consciousness inwardly  and rise into the  inner consciousness, we can know the things of the higher worlds  and go  beyond the limitation of our physical sense, then  only can  we have  the true  knowledge of  this world and  the worlds  beyond and  that practice  is  called ’Yoga’.      The meaning  of the  word. ’Yoga’  is to  join-join our external consciousness with our true self.      According to  Sri Aurobindo, humanity is under the sway of dark and ignorant forces and that is the reason for human sufferings, disease and death-all the signs of imperfection. It is  clear that  man has to progress towards a Light which brings knowledge,  power, happiness!  love, beauty  and even physical immortality. The Divine is the essence of the whole universe and  to realise  and  possess  Him  should  be  the supreme aim  of human  life. To acquire all the qualities of the Divine is the final purpose of Nature’s evolution. 777 The soul  progresses by gathering experience in the ordinary life but  A it is a very long, slow and devious process from birth to  birth. Yoga  hastens the  soul’s development.  The progress that  can be  made in  any lives  is made  in a few years by  the help  of Yoga.  The Yoga  of Sri  Aurobindo is called the  ’Integral Yoga’  or the  ’Supermental Yoga’. The Yogas of  the past  were only  of ascent  to the Spirit. Sri Aurobindo’s Yoga  is both  of ascent  and descent.  One  can realise the  Divine in  consciousness by  the old  Yogas but cannot establish the Divine on earth in a collective no less than in  an individual  physical life.  In the old Yogas the world was  considered either  an illusion  or a transitional phase: it  had no  prospect of  having all  the terms of its existence fulfilled.  Sri Aurobindo  on the  other hand says that the  world is a real creation of the Divine and life in it can be completely divinised down to the very cells of the body. The  kingdom of  God on  earth can be brought about in the  most   literal  sense  by  a  total  transformation  of collective man. To put it in Sri Aurobindo’s words:           "Here and  not elsewhere  the highest God head has      to be  found, the soul’s divine nature developed out of      the imperfect  physical human  nature and through unity      with God  and man and universe the whole large truth of

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    being discovered  and lived and made visibly wonderful.      That completes  the long  cycle  of  our  becoming  and      admits us  to a  supreme result;  that  is  opportunity      given to  the soul by the human birth and until that is      accomplished, it can not cease." For this  transformation a  new power called the ’supermind’ which was sealed to this earth till now is needed, F      Shri Soli  Sorabjee, for the petitioners, bas contended that the  followers of  Sri Aurobindo  satisfy the aforesaid three conditions and, therefore, they constitute a religious denomination.   Strong    reliance   was   placed   on   The Commissioner,  Hindu   Religious   Endowments,   Madras   v. Lakshmindra Thirtha  Swamiar of  Sri Shitur Mutt (supra). In that case  the followers  of Rarnanuja,  the fol  lowers  of Madhwacharya and  the followers  of other religious teachers were held  to be the religious denomination. On the strength of this  case it was contended that Sri Aurobindo was also a religious teacher  and, therefore,  there is  no  reason  on principle which compels the conclusion that the followers of Aurobindo who share common faith and organisation and have a distinctive name do not constitute a 778 religious denomination.  A similar  view was  taken in Nalam Ramalingayya v.  The Commissioner  of Charitable  and  Hindu Religious Institutions and Endowments, Hyderabad(1). Dealing with the  expression ’religious  denomination’,  a  Division Bench of  the Andhra  Pradesh  High  Court  relying  on  Sri Lakshmindra’s case (supra) observed as follows:           "To   hold   that   there   exists   a   religious      denomination, there  must exist  a religious  sect or a      body  having   a  common  faith  and  organisation  and      designated by  a distinctive name . Of course, any sect      or sub. sect professing certain religious cult having a      common faith and common spiritual organisation, such as      Vaishnavites, Madhvites,  Saivites  may  be  termed  as      religious denomination  but L  certainly not any caste,      sub-caste or sect of Hindu religion, who worship mainly      a particular deity or god."      It was  further contended that the words "religion’ and ’religious  denomination’  must  not  be  construed  in  the narrow, restrictive  and orthodox  or traditional  sense but must be given a broad meaning.      It  may   be  observed   that  in   the  case   of  The Commissioner,  Hindu   Religious   Endowments,   Madras   v. Lakshmindra Thirtha  Swamiar  of  Sri  Shirur  Mutt  (supra) different sects and sub. sects of the Hindu religion founded by  various  religious  teachers  were  called  a  religious denomination on  the ground  that they  being part  of Hindu religion  would   also  be   designated   as   a   religious denomination if  the followers of Hindu religion constituted a religious  denomination as  the part must bear the impress of the  whole. This  observation was  in this  content.  The other case  taking a similar view viz. Nalam Ramalingayya v. The  Commissioner   of  Charitable   and   Hindu   Religious Institutions and Endowments, Hyderabad (supra) is also based on the same ground.      For the  petitioners it  was further submitted that Sri Aurobindo and  the Mother  were  adverse  to  ’religion’  as ’Religiosity" and  "Religionism" but not lo "True Religion". Reference was  made to various writings of Sri Aurobindo and the Mother: Sri Aurobindo           "In order  to exceed our Nature and become divine,      we must  first get  God, for we are the lower imperfect      term of

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779      Our being. He is its higher perfect term, The finite to      A become  infinite, must know, have and touch infinity;      the symbol  being in  order to  become its own reality,      must  know,   love  and  preceive  that  Reality.  This      necessarily  is   the   imperative   justification   of      religion; not  of a  church, creed  or theology-for all      these things  are religiosity,  not  religion-but  that      personal and intimate religious temper and spirit which      moves men to worship, to aspire to or to pant after his      own idea of the supreme.                                         (SABCV 17, p. 54-55)           "It is true in a sense that Religion should be the dominant thing  in life.. When it identifies with a creed or cult or  system of  ceremonial acts  it may  well  become  a retarding force There are two aspects of religion. Spiritual Religion  and   Religionism.  True   Religion  is  spiritual Religion, which  seeks to live in spirit in what is . beyond the intellect..  Religionism on  the other  hand  entrenches itself in  some narrow  pietistic exaltation  of  the  lower members. It  lays exclusive  stress on  intellectual dogmas, forms and ceremonies .                                       (SABCV 15, p. 166-67) The Mother           "We give  the name  of religion  to any concept of      the world  or the  universe which  is presented  as the      exclusive Truth  in which  one must  have  an  absolute      faith, generally  because this  Truth is declared to be      the result of a revelation.           Most religions  affirm the  existence of a God and the rules  to be  followed to  obey him,  but there are some Godless religions,  such  as  socio-political  organisations which, in  the name of an Ideal or the State, claim the same right to be obeyed                                      (MCV No. 13, p. 212-13)           "The  first   and  principal   article  of   these      established and  formal religions  runs always "Mine is      the  supreme,   the  only  truth,  all  others  are  in      falsehood or  inferior." For  without this  fundamental      dogma, established religions could not have existed. If      you do not believe and. proclaim that you 780      alone possess  the one  or the  highest truth, you will      not be  able to  impress people  and make them flock to      you.                                           (MCV No. 3, p. 77)           "He who  has a  spiritual  experience  and  faith,      formulates  it   in  the  most  appropriate  words  for      himself. But if he is convinced that this expression is      the only  correct and  true one for this experience and      faith, he  becomes  dogmatic  and  tends  to  create  a      religion.                                          (MCV No. 13. p. 22)           "Imagine someone  who, in  some way  or other  has      heard of  something like  the Divine  or has a personal      feeling that  something of  the kind exists, and begins      to make  all sorts  of efforts,  efforts  of  will,  of      discipline, efforts  of  concentration,  all  sorts  of      efforts to find this Divine, to discover what he is, to      become acquainted  with Him  and unite  with Him.  Then      this person is doing Yoga. Now if this person has noted      down all  the processes  he has  used and  constructs a      fixed system, and sets up all that he has discovered is      absolute laws-for  example he  says, the Divine is like      this, to  find the  Divine you  must do this, make this

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    particular gesture,  take this  attitude, perform  this      ceremony and you must admit that this is the truth, you      must say  "I accept  that this is the Truth and I fully      adhere to  it; and  your method  is the only right one,      the only  one which  exists"- if  all that  is  written      down,  organised   arranged   into   fixed   laws   and      ceremonies, it becomes a religion.                                          (MCV No. 8, p. 147) Sri Aurobindo           "You express  your faith  in  Sri  Aurobindo  with      certain words, which are for you the best expression of      this faith;  this is  quite all  right. But  if you are      convinced that  these very  words are  the only correct      ones to  express what Sri Aurobindo is, then you become      dogmatic and are ready to create a religion."                           (Sri Aurobindo Circle 21 No. 1965)           "That is  why religions always blunder, always for      they  want   to  standardise   the  expression   of  an      experience and  impose it  on  all  as  an  irrefutable      truth. The experience was 781      true, complete  in itself,  convincing-for him  who had      it. A  The formulae  he has made of it is excellent-for      him; but  to want  to impose  it on  others is  a gross      error which  bas altogether  disasterous  consequences-      always and  which always  takes away, far away from the      Truth."           "That is  why all religions, however fine they may      be have  always led  men to  the  worst  excesses.  All      crimes, all  horrors that  have been prepetrated in the      name of  religion are  among the darkest spots in human      history."                               (Bulletin No. 1968, p. 129 31)           "You see,  this is  what  I  have  learned  :  the      failure of  the religions.  It  is  because  they  were      divided. They  wanted people  to be  religious  to  the      exclusion of  the other  religious.. And  what the  new      consciousness wants  is: no more divisions. to find the      meeting point."                                      (MCV No. 13, p. 293-94)           "There is  no word so plastic and uncertain in its      meaning as the word religion. The word is European and,      therefore, it  is  as  well  to  know  first  what  the      Europeans mean  by it.  In this  matter we  find them..      divided in opinion. Sometimes they use it as equivalent      to  a  set  of  beliefs,  sometimes  as  equivalent  to      morality coupled  with a  belief in  God, sometimes  as      equivalent to  a set of pietistic actions and emotions.      Faith, works and pious observances, these are the three      recognised elements of European religion...           Religion in India is a still more plastic term and      may  mean   anything  from   the  heights  of  Yoga  to      strangling your  fellowman and  relieving  him  of  the      wordly goods  he may happen to be carrying with him. It      would, therefore, take too long to enumerate everything      that can be included in Indian religion."                     -Sri Aurobindo (Glossary of Terms in Sri                               Aurobindo’s Writings, p. 132)      Emphasis  was   also  laid  upon  the  opinion  of  the authoritative sources  in support of the contention that the teachings of  Sri Aurobindo  constitute a  religion and  the Society  a  religious  denomination.  The  Encyclopaedia  of Philosophy (1972 ed., Vol. 1, pp. 782 208-9) observes:

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         "Sri Aurobindo  was an  Indian  metaphysician  and      founder of  a new  religious movement with headquarters      at Pondichery.  The religious  movement associated with      him has  increased its following in India, and has made      some converts  in the  West......... God must ’descend’      into human  experience. This illumination of individual      will   lead   to   the   emergence   of   a   divinised      community,...Aurobindo  produced  a  synthesis  between      older Indian  religious ideas  and the  world affirming      attitudes of Christian theism."      The  Encyclopaedia   Brittanica   talking   about   Sri Aurobindo says:           "Sri Aurobindo devoted himself to discover the way      by  which  the  Universe  might  be  made  divine...Sri      Aurobindo has  been acclaimed  as the  prophet  of  the      Superman, as  the hierophant  of the  ’new age’......He      has called his stand point that of a spiritual religion      of humanity." The Dictionary  of Comparative  Religion (1970  ed., p. 117) mentions:           "According to  Aurobindo, there  is a  progressive      evolution of  the divine Being through matter no higher      spiritual forms,  and the Aurobindo movement is held to      represent vanguard  of this evolutionary process in our      own times.  Aurobindo practised and taught an ’integral      yoga’ in  which meditative  and spiritual exercises are      integrated with  physical,  cultural  and  intellectual      pursuits." Encyclopaedia Americana (1966 Vol. 12, p. 634) states:           "He (Sri  Aurobindo) abandoned politics to found a      religious school(1910)  at  Pondicherry.  A  practising      Yoga  philosopher,  he  wrote  numerous  spiritual  and      mystical works." The Gazetteer  of India,  published  by  the  Government  of India, Vol.  1, Country and People, Chapter 8, Religion, pp. 413-500, Section on Sri Aurobindo, states:           "Sri Aurobindo  gave new  interpretations  of  the      vedas and the Vedanta. and in his Essays on the Gita he      expoun- 783      ded what  he called  "the integral  view of  Life". His      great A  work, The  Life Divine, is a summing up of his      philosophy of  "the Descent of the Divine into Matter".      The importance  of Sri  Aurobindo’s misiion lies in his      attempt to explain the true methods of Yoga."      In the  Newsweek  (Nov.  20,  1972)  the  International Weekly, its ’religion’ Editor, Woodward, writes:           "The Next  Religion": Some  students  of  oriental      thought believe  that Sri  Aurobindo’s spiritual vision      and discipline  may blossom into the first new religion      of global  scope  since  the  rise  of  Islam  thirteen      centuries ago .. Sri Aurobindo left behind a nucleus of      disciples in  Pondicherry where  the Master’s  work  is      carried on by 1800 devotees who live in India’s largest      Ashram or spiritual community." Reference was  also made to the opinions of the philosophers and professors  of  religion  about  the  teachings  of  Sri Aurobindo.  Frederic   Spiegelberg,  in   his  book  ’Living Religions of  the World’,  p. 190-205,  writes that  in  Sri Aurobindo:           "We pass  beyond specific religions to a synthetic      vision  of  the  religious  impulse  itself,  a  vision      designed to embrace all previous and future history all      previous and future paths.           Sri Aurobindo  is a  man worshipped by hundreds of

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    thousands and respected by millions.. In his retreat at      Pondicherry he is less the philosopher of Hinduism than      the philosopher  of religion  in general,  the voice of      that which comparative religion leaves undisputed."      Mr.  Robert   Neil  Minor,   Professor   of   Religion, University of Kansas, writes:           "on the level of Mind, then Aurobindo’s system can      not be  falsified. It  therefore cannot  be verified on      the level  of Mind.  But as  a religion  it is  a total      package. Aurobindo  did not  offer a  religious view of      which one  could accept and reject parts. He offered an      integral system  based  upon  an  integral  vision.  He      offered. as well, the vision itself."               (Sri Aurobindo: The Perfect and the Good, 177) 784 And, the  opinions of  similar other  professors of religion and philosophers have been quoted to show that the teachings of  Sri   Aurobindo  have   been  treated   as  religion  by theologians  and   by  professors   and  by  important  news agencies.      The interpretations  of the  term  ’religion’  used  in different Acts were also referred to but it is not necessary to refer  to them as we are to interpret the term ’religion’ and ’religious  denomination, with references to Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution.      Mr. S.  Rangarajan appearing for the petitioners in one of  the  other  writ  petitions  substantially  adopted  the contentions  raised   by  Mr.   Soli  Sorabjee  and  further supplemented the  same  by  raising  the  following  points. According to him the ingredients of religion are .      (1)  A spiritual ideal;      (2)     A  set  of  concepts  or  precepts  on  God-Man           relationship underlying the ideal:      (3)   A methodology  given or evolved by the founder or           followers of  the religion  to achieve  the ideal;           and      (4)   A definite  following of  persons  having  common      faith in the precepts and concepts; and in  order to  constitute a  ’religious denomination’ two further ingredients are needed:      (5)  The followers should have a common organisation;      (6)   They should  be designated  and designable  by  a           distinct name-This  may usually be the name of the           founder himself.      The counsel  contends that the ideal in Sri Aurobindo’s religion is  a ’Divine  Life in a Divine Body’ by Divinising Man and  by trans  forming his  mind,  vital  and  physical. According to  Sri Aurobindo,  in  the  beginning  the  whole universe was  full of all-pervading Divine consciousness. He called the dynamic portion of the Divine as ’Supermind’. The Divine-the Supermind-according  to him,  wanted to  see  its manifestation even in matter. By a process of involution the Divine. which  is the  subtlest became  grosser and  grosser giving 785 rise to  various planes  of consciousness. This was achieved through ,  lnvolution-Evolution and Divinisation of Man. The methodology for  achieving the ideal was the ’Integral Yoga’ which only  means using  all the methods-Bhakthi, knowledge, work  meditation,  concentration,  attaining  perfection  to derive optimum  benefits of  each  one  of  them,  by  total surrender to  the Divine  and by  becoming the instrument of the Divine.      Sri  Aurobindo   has  a   definite  following.  In  the beginning, this  consisted of  a few disciples. Slowly their

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number increased and an Ashram grew. Then there are definite organisations, Ashrams, Sri Aurobindo Society with more than 300 centres  the world  over. The  devotees of Sri Aurobindo are also referred to as Aurobindonians.      There are  certain other attributes which indicate that the  followers  of  Sri  Aurobindo  constitute  a  religious denomination, for  example, chanting  of Mantras,  specially prepared by Sri Aurobindo, a particular symbol also used for identification, place of pilgrimage 1) is the Samadhi of Sri Aurobindo and  the Mother,  provision for  meditation at the Samadhi. Flowers are offered at the Samadhi by the devotees.      The uniqueness  of his  philosophy  and  his  teachings according to  Mr. Rangarajan  constitute  religion  and  the special features  in his  philosophy also make the Society a religious  denomination.   Thus,  all   the  ingredients  of religion and  religious denomination are satisfied and there is no  reason why his teachings be not taken to be religious and the  institutions viz,  the Society and the Auroville be not taken  to be a religious denomination within the meaning of Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution.      The Solicitor-General  for the  Union of  India and Mr. F.S. Nariman,  counsel for the respondents Nos. 6 to 238, on the other hand contended that the teachings of Sri Aurobindo do not  constitute religion  nor  is  the  Society  and  the Auroville a religious denomination, and in any case there is no violation  of Article  26 of the Constitution inasmuch as the impugned  Act has  taken over  only  the  management  of Auroville from  the Society  and does not interfere with the freedom  contemplated   by  Articles   25  and   26  of  the Constitution. . H      Reference  was   made  to  rule  9  of  the  Rules  and Regulations of 786 Sri Aurobindo  Society, which  deals with  membership of the Society and provides:           "9. Any  person  or  institution  or  organisation      either in  India or  abroad who  subscribes to the aims      and objects  of the  Society, and whose application for      member ship  is approved  by the  executive  Committee,      will be  member of  the Society. The membership is open      to  people   everywhere  without   any  distinction  of      nationality, religion, caste, creed or sex." The only condition for membership is that the person seeking the membership of the Society must subscribe to the aims and objects of  the Society.  It was  further urged that what is universal cannot  be a  religious denomination.  In order to constitute a  separate denomination, there must be something distinct from  another. A  denomination, argues the counsel, is one  which is different from the other and if the Society was  a  religious  denomination,  then  the  person  seeking admission  to   the  institution  would  lose  his  previous religion He  cannot be  a member of two religions at one and the same  time. But  this is  not the position in becoming a member  of   the  society   and   Auroville.   A   religious denomination  must   necessarily  be   a  new  and  one  new methodology must  be provided for a religion. Substantially, the view  taken by Sri Aurobindo remains a part of the Hindu philosophy.  There   may  be   certain  innovations  in  his philosophy but  that would  not make  it a  religion on that account.      In support  of  his  contention  the  Solicitor-Gereral placed reliance  on Hiralal  Mallick v.  State of  Bihar(l). Dealing with meditation this Court observed:           "Modern scientific  studies have validated ancient      vedic   insights   a   bequeathing   to   mankind   new

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    meditational, yogic  and other  therapeutics,  at  once      secular, empirically  tested  and  transreligious.  The      psychological,    physiological     and    sociological      experiments conducted  on the effects of Transcendental      Meditation  (TM,  for  short)  have  proved  that  this      science of  creative intelligence,  in its meditational      applications, tranquilizes the tense inside, helps meet      stress ----------------------------           (1) [19781] SCR 301. 787      without    distress,    overcome    inactivities    and      instabilities and  A by holistic healing normalises the      fevered and fatigued man. Rehabilitation of psychiatric      patients,   restoration    of    juvenile    offenders,      augmentation  of   moral  tone  and  temper  and,  more      importantly,  improvement   of  social   behaviour   of      prisoners are  among the  proven  finding  recorded  by      researchers. Extensive studies of TM in many prisons in      the U.S.A.,  Canada, Germany  and other  countries  are      reported  to   have   yielded   results   of   improved      creativity, higher responsibility and better behaviour.      Indeed, a  few trial  courts in  the United States have      actually prescribed  TM as a recipe for rehabilitation.      As Dr.  M.P. Pali,  Principal of  the Kasturba  Medical      College, Mangalore, has put down:           "Meditation is a science and this should be learnt      under guidance and cannot be just picked up from books.      Objective studies on the effects of meditation on human      body and  mind is  a modern  observation and  has  been      studied by  various  investigation  at  MEERU-Maharishi      European Research  University. Its tranquilizing effect      on body  and mind,  ultimately leading  to the  greater      goal of  Cosmic Consciousness  or universal  awareness,      has been  studied by  using over  a hundred parameters.      Transcendental Meditation  practised for  IS minutes in      the morning  and evening  every day brings about a host      of beneficial effects.      To name only a few:      1.   Body and mind get into a state of deep relaxation.      2.   B.M.R. drops, loss oxygen is consumed. F      3.    E.E.G.  shows brain  wave coherence  with ’alpha’           wave preponderance.      4.   Automatic stability increases. G      5.   Normalisation of high blood pressure.      6.   Reduced use of alcohol and tobacco.      7.    Reduced  stress, hence  decreased plasma cortisol           and blood lactate. H      8.   Slowing of the heart etc." 788      This Court  dealing with  punishment in a criminal case in Giasuddin v. A . P. State(l ) again observed:           "There is  a spiritual dimension to the first page      of  our  Constitution  which  projects  into  penology.      Indian courts may draw inspiration from Patanjali sutra      even as  they derive  punitive patterns  from the Penal      Code (most  of Indian  meditational therapy is based on      the sutras of Patanjali).      on the  strength of  these authorities  it is contended for the  Union of India that the integral yoga propounded by Sri Aurobindo is only a science and not a religion.      The Society itself treated Auroville not as a religious institution. Auroville  is a  township which  was conceived, planned and  developed as  a centre of international culture for the  promotion of  the ideals  which are  central to the

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United   Nations   Educational   Scientific   and   Cultural organisation (UNESCO).  These ideals have been explained and proclaimed extensively  in the writings of Sri Aurobindo and the Mother. In the year 1966, Sri Aurobindo Society, devoted as it  was to  the teachings  of Sri Aurobindo and guided by the Mother,  proposed this  cultural township  to UNESCO for the commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the UNESCO. The Union of  India took up the matter with UNESCO and it did so on the explicit understanding that Auroville as proposed was in full  consonance  and  conformity  with  India’s  highest ideals and aspirations and that would help Auroville promote the  aims   and  objects  of  UNESCO.  Accordingly,  at  the Fourteenth Session  of the  General Conference of the UNESCO held in  Paris in  1966, a resolution was passed noting that the proposal  made  by  Sri  Aurobindo  Society  to  set  up Auroville  as  a  cultural  township  where  people  of  the different countries  will live  together in  harmony in  one community and  engage in  cultural, educational,  scientific and other  pursuits and  that the  township  will  represent cultures of  the world  not  only  intellectually  but  also presenting different  schools  of  architecture,  paintings, soulpture, music etc. as a part of living, bringing together the  values   and  ideals  of  civilisations  and  cultures, commended the project to those interested in UNESCO’s ideals as   the   project   would   contribute   to   international understanding and promotion of peace. ----------------------      (1) [1978] 1 SCR 153 @ 164. 789      The said  resolution of  the UNESCO was followed by two other resolutions-one  at the  15th Session  in 1968 and the other at  the 16th Session in 1970. In the second resolution the UNESCO  had noted  that the  Society had  taken steps to establish Auroville  as an  international cultural  township which would  fulfil the  ideas of  the  UNESCO.  The  UNESCO invited the  member States and nongovernmental organisations to  participate  in  the  development  of  Auroville  as  an international cultural  township designed  to bring together the  values  of  different  cultures  and  civilisations  in harmonious environment.  The foundation  stone of  Auroville was laid on 28 February 1968 with the participation of youth or many  nations, representing  the coming  together of  all Nations in  a spirit  of human  unity. The  UNESCO conceived Auroville township  as an instrument of education, promoting mutual respect  and understanding  between people in keeping with the spirit of Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Universal  Declaration   of  Principles   of   International Cultural Cooperation.      The Government  of India took active part in making the 1 UNESCO  interested in  the project  and take  decision  as aforesaid  for   the  development   of   Auroville   as   an international cultural  township with  the participation  of countries who are members of the UNESCO.      Sri Aurobindo  Society  had  brought  the  proposal  of Auroville to  the Government  of India  and  explained  that Auroville was to be an international cultural township. This fact is evident from the brochure submitted by Sri Aurobindo Society to the Government of India.      The Charter  of Auroville  given  by  the  Mother  also indicates that  it is  not a  religious institution,  as  is evident from the following: F      "1.     Auroville  belongs  to  nobody  in  particular.           Auroville belongs  to humanity  as a whole. But to           live in Auroville one must be the willing servitor           of the Divine’s consciousness. G

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     2.   Auroville  will  be  the  place  of  an  unending           education, of  constant progress, and a youth-that           never ages.       3.   Auroville wants to be the bridge between the past           and  the   future.   Taking   advantage   of   all           discoveries  from   without   and   from   within,           Auroville  will   boldly  spring   towards  future           realisations. 790      4.    Auroville  will  be  the  site  of  material  and           spiritual research  for a  living embodiment of an           actual human unity.      On the  own admission  of the  General Secretary of Sri Aurobindo Society, Pondicherry, Auroville was to be a symbol of  international   cooperation,  an   effort   to   promote international under  standing by  bringing together in close juxtaposition   the   values   and   ideals   of   different civilisations  and   cultures.  The  cultures  of  different regions of  the earth  will be  represented in  Auroville in such  a   way  as   to  be  accessible  to  all  not  merely intellectually in ideas, theories, principles and languages, but also  in habits and customs; art in all forms-paintings, sculpture, music,  architecture, decor,  dance; as  well  as physically through natural scenery, dress, games, sports and diet. It  will be  a representation in a concrete and Jiving manner; it  will have a museum, an art gallery, a library of books, recorded  music etc.  It will also have other objects which will express its intellectual, scientific and artistic genious, spiritual tendencies and national characteristics.      While  participating  in  UNESCO  meeting  "Design  for Integrated Living  Programme in Auroville" was presented and that also  goes a  long way  to show  that  it  was  only  a cultural township and not a religious institution.      Numerous utterings  by  Sri  Aurobindo  or  the  Mother unmistakably show that the Ashram or Society or Auroville is not a  religious institution.  In Sri  Aurobindo’s own words (The Teaching and the Ashram of Sri Aurobindo, 1934, p. 6):           "The Ashram  is not  a religious association Those      who are here come from all religions and some are of no      religion. There  is no  creed  or  set  of  dogmas,  no      governing religious  body; there are only the teachings      of Sri Aurobindo and certain psychological practices of      concentration and  meditation, etc.,  for the enlarging      of the consciousness, receptivity to the Truth, mastery      over the  desires, the discovery of the divine self and      consciousness concealed  within  each  human  being,  a      higher evolution of the nature." 791 Sri Aurobindo himself said(1):           "I may  say that  it is  far from  my  purpose  to      propagate any religion, new or old." Sri Aurobindo says again(2):           "We are not a party or a church or religion," Sri Aurobindo exposes(3):           "Churches and  creeds  have,  for  example,  stood violently in  the way  of philosophy  and science,  burned a Giordano Bruno,  imprisoned  a  Galileo,  and  so  generally misconducted themselves  in this  matter that philosophy and science had  a self-defence  to turn  upon Religion and rend her to  pieces in  order to  get  a  free  field  for  their legitimate development." The Mother said on 19.3.1973:           "Here we do not have religion." Sri Aurobindo says again(4):           "Yogic  methods   have  some  thing  of  the  same

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    relation to the customary psychological workings of man      as has  to scientific  handling of the natural force of      electricity or  of steam  to the  normal operations  of      steam and  of electricity. And the, too are formed upon      a  knowledge   developed  and   confirmed  by   regular      experiment,   a   practical   analysis   and   constant      results....All methods grouped under the common name of      Yoga are  special psychological  processes founded on a      fixed truth  of nature  and developing,  out of  normal      functions, powers  and results which were always latent      but which  her ordinary  movements do  not easily or do      not often manifest." 792 It is pertinent to quote Mother’s answer to a question(1):           "Q. Sweet  Mother, what  is the difference between      Yoga and religion;           Mother’s Ans:  Ah! My  child.. It is as though you      were asking me the difference between a dog and a cat."      There can  be no  better proof  than what Sri Aurobindo and the  Mother themselves  thought of  their teachings  and their institutions  to find out whether the teachings of Sri Aurobindo and  his Integral  Yoga constitute a religion or a philosophy. The  above utterings  from time  to time  by Sri Aurobindo and  the Mother  hardly leave  any doubt about the nature of  the institution.  It was on the basis that it was not a religions institution that the Society collected funds from the  Central Government  and the  Governments of States and from abroad and the other non-governmental agencies,      Mr. F.S.  Nariman appearing  for respondents  Nos. 6 to 238 adopted  the arguments advanced by the Solicitor General Mr. K.  Parasaran, and  supplemented the  same. He submitted that  the   Society  was   registered  under  the  Societies Registration Act,  1860 and a purely religious society could not have  been registered  under the  Societies Registration Act. Section  20 of  the Societies Registration Act provides what kind  of Societies  can be registered under the Act. It does not  talk of  religious  institutions.  Of  course,  it includes a  society with  charitable purposes.  Section 2 of the Charitable  Endowments Act, however, excludes charity as a religious  purpose. It  was  further  contended  that  the nature of the institution can be judged by the Memorandum of Association. The  Memorandum of Association does not talk of any religion.  The purpose  of the Society was to make known to the members and the people in general the aims and ideals of Sri  Aurobindo and  the Mother;  their system of Integral Yoga and  to work  for its fulfillment in all possible ways; to train  selected students  and teachers  from all over the world  in  the  Integral  System  of  Education,  i.e.,  the spiritual, psychic,  mental, vital  and physical; to help in cash or  in kind  by why  of donations  etc.;  to  organise, encourage, promote  and assist  in the  study, research, and pursuit of  science literature and fine arts etc. Nowhere it talks of propagating religion. This is the surest 793 index to  know whether  the Auroville  or the  Society was a religious A institution.      It was  further contended that a religious denomination must be  professed by  that body but from the very beginning the  Society   has  eschewed  the  word  ’religion’  in  its constitution. The  Society  professed  to  be  a  scientific research organisation  to  the  donors  and  got  income-tax exemption on  the  footing  that  it  was  not  a  religious institution. The  Society has claimed exemption from income- tax under s. 80 for the donors and under s. 35 for itself on that ground.  Ashram  Trust  was  different  from  Auroville

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Ashram.  The   Ashram  Trust  also  applied  for  income-tax exemption and  got it on that very ground. So also Aurobindo Society claimed  exemption on  the footing that it was not a religious institution  and got  it. They  professed  to  the Government also  that they  were not a religious institution in their  application for  financial  assistance  under  tho Central   Scheme    of   Assistance   to   voluntary   Hindu organisations.      On the  basis of  the materials  placed before us viz., the Memorandum  of Association  of the  Society, the several applications made by the Society claiming exemption under s. 35 and  s. 80  of the Income-tax Act, the repeated utterings of Sri  Aurobindo  and  the  Mother  that  the  Society  and Auroville were  not religious institutions and host of other documents there  is no  room  for  doubt  that  neither  the Society nor  Auroville constitute  a religious  denomination and the  teachings of  Sri Aurobindo  only  represented  his philosophy and not a religion.      Even assuming  but not  holding that the Society or the Auroville  were   a  religious  denomination,  the  impugned enactment  is   not  hit   by  Article   25  or  26  of  the Constitution. The  impugned enactment  does not  curtail the freedom of  conscience  and  the  right  freely  to  profess practise and  propagate religion.  Therefore,  there  is  no question of the enactment being hit by Article 25.      Article 26  as stated  earlier confers  freedom to  the religious denomination:      (a)  to  establish   and  maintain   institutions   for           religious and charitable purposes;      (b)  to manage its own affairs in matters of religion;      (c)  to own and acquire movable and immovable property;           and 794      (d)  to administer  such property  in  accordance  with           law.      The impugned enactment does not stand in the way of the Society  establishing   and  maintaining   institutions  for religious and charitable purposes. It also does not stand in the way  of the  Society to manage its affairs in matters of religion. It  has only  taken over  the  management  of  the Auroville by  the Society in respect of the secular matters. The position before the present Constitution came into force was that  the State did not interfere in matters of religion in its  doctrinal and  ritualistic aspects  treating it as a private purpose,  but  it  did  exercise  control  over  the administration   of    property   endowed    for   religious institutions (dedicated  to the  public) treating  it  as  a public purpose, and this position has not changed even under the present Constitution.(1)      The  scope  and  extent  of  the  rights  conferred  by Articles 25  and 26 of the Constitution are now well-settled by the decision of this Court.      To start  with, in  The Commissioner,  Hindu  Religions Endowments Madras  v. Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Sri Shirur Mutt(2) dealing with various aspects of Article 26 of the Constitution this Court observed as follows:           "The other  thing that remains to be considered in      regard to  article 26  is, what  is the scope of clause      tb) of  the article  which speaks  of management of its      own affairs  in matters  of religion  ?  "The  language      undoubtedly suggests  that there could be other affairs      of a  religious denomination or a section thereof which      are not  matters of religion and to which the guarantee      given by this clause would not apply............           It will  be seen  that besides the right to manage

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    its own  affairs in matters of religion, which is given      by clause  (b), the  next two  clauses  of  article  26      guarantee to  a religious  denomination  the  right  to      acquire  and   own  property  and  to  administer  such      property in  accordance with law. The administration of      its property  by a religious denomination has thus been      placed on a different footing 795      from the  right to manage its own affairs in matters of      A religion.  The latter is a fundamental right which no      legislature can  take away,  whereas the  former can be      regulated by  laws which  the legislature  can  validly      impose. It  is clear,  therefore, that questions merely      relating to administration of properties belonging to a      religious group  or  institution  are  not  matters  of      religion to which clause (b) of the article applies      ..... freedom  of religion  in our  Constitution is not      confined to  religious  beliefs  only;  it  extends  to      religious practices as well subject to the restrictions      which the  Constitution itself  has  laid  down.  Under      article 26(b),  therefore, a  religious denomination or      organisation enjoys  complete autonomy in the matter of      deciding as  to what rites and ceremonies are essential      according to  the tenets  of the religion they hold and      no outside  authority has any jurisdiction to interfere      with their  decision in  such matters.  Of course,  the      scale of  expenses to  be incurred  in connection  with      these religious  observations  would  be  a  matter  of      administration of  property belonging  to the religious      denomination  and   can  be   controlled   by   secular      authorities in  accordance with  any law laid down by a      competent  legislature;   for  it   could  not  be  the      injunction of  any religion  to destroy The institution      and its endowments by incurring wasteful expenditure on      rites and  ceremonies. It  should be  noticed, however,      that under article 26(b) it is the fundamental right of      a  religious  denomination  or  its  representative  to      administer its  properties in  accordance with law; and      the  law,   therefore,  must   leave   the   right   of      administration to  the  religious  denomination  itself      subject to  such restrictions  and  regulations  as  it      might choose  to impose.  A law  which takes  away  the      right of  administration from  the hands of a religious      denomination altogether  and  vests  it  in  any  other      authority would  amount to  a violation  of  the  right      guaranteed under clause (d) of Article 26." G The same  principle was  reiterated by  this  Court  in  The Durgah Committee,  Ajmer and  Anr. v.  Syed Hussain  Ali and ors.(l).      In Tilkyat  Shri Govindlaljl  Maharaj v.  The State  of Rajasthan and  ors.(2) it  was held that the right to manage the properties of 796 a temple  was a  purely secular  matter  and  could  not  be regarded as  a religious  practice under  Art. 25(1)  or  as amounting to affairs in matters of religion under Art. 26(b) consequently, the  Nathdwara Temple  Act in  so  far  as  it provided  for  the  management  of  the  properties  of  the Nathdwara Temple  under the  provisions of  the Act  did not contravane Arts. 25(1) and 26(b) of the Constitution.      In Sastri  Yagnapurushadji and Ors. v. Muldas Bhudardas Vaishya and Anr.(l) the appellants who were the followers of the Swaminarayan  sect  and  known  as  satsangis,  filed  a representative suit  for a  declaration  that  the  relevant provisions of  the Bombay Harijan Temple Entry Act, 1947 (as

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amended by  Act 77 of 1948) did a not apply to their temples because, the  religion of the Swaminarayan sect was distinct and different  from Hindu religion and because, the relevant provisions of  the Act  were ultra  vires. Dealing  with the question  this  Court  observed  as  will  appear  from  the headnote:           "The Indian mind has consistently through the ages      been exercised  over  the  problem  of  the  nature  of      godhead, the  problem that  faces the spirit at the end      of life,  and the  interrelation between the individual      and the universal soul. According to Hindu religion the      ultimate goal  of humanity  is release and freedom from      the unceasing  cycle of births and rebirths and a state      of absorption  and assimilation  of the individual soul      with the  infinites. On  the means  to attain  this and      there is  a great  divergence of  views; some emphasise      the importance  of Gyana, while others extol the virtue      of Bhakti  or devotion,  yet  others  insist  upon  the      paramount importance  of the performance of duties with      a heart  full of  devotion  and  in  mind  inspired  by      knowledge, Naturally  it was realised by Hindu religion      from the  very beginning  of its  career that truth was      many-sided  and  different  views  contained  different      aspects of truth which no one could fully express. This      knowledge inevitably  bread a  spirit of  tolerance and      willingness to understand and appreciate the opponent’s      point of  view. Because  of this  broad sweep  of Hindu      philosophic concept under Hindu philosophy, there is no      scope for  ex communicating  any notion or principle as      hertical and  rejecting it  as such. The development of      Hindu religion  .11 and philosophy shows that from time      to time saints and 797 religious reformers attempted to remove from Hindu A thought and practices,  elements of corruption and superstition, and revolted against  the dominance  of rituals and the power of the priestly  class with which it came to be associated, and that led  to  the  formation  of  different  sects.  In  the teaching  of   these  saints   and  religious  reformers  is noticeable a  certain amount  of divergance in their respec- tive views; but underneath that divergence lie certain broad concepts which  can be  treated as basic and there is a kind of subtle  indescribable unity  which keeps  them within the sweep of  broad and  progressive Hindu  religion. The  first among these basic concepts is the acceptance of the Vedas as the highest  authority in religious and philosophic matters. This concept  necessarily implies that all the systems claim to have  drawn their  principles from  a common reservoir of thought enshrined  in the  Vedas. Unlike  other religions in the world,  the  Hindu  religion  does  not  claim  any  one prophet; it  does not  worship any  one  God;  it  does  not subscribe to  any one  dogma, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept;  it does  not follow  any  one  set  of religious rites  of  performances;  in  fact,  it  does  not satisfy the  traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a  way of  life and nothing more. The Constitution makers were  fully   conscious  of   the  broad  and  comprehensive character of  Hindu religion;  and  while  guaranteeing  the fundamental right  to freedom of religion made it clear that reference to  Hindus  shall  be  construed  as  including  a reference to  persons professing  the Sikh, Jaila or Budhist religion.      Philosophically,  Swaminarayan   was  a   follower   of Ramanuja and  the essence  of his teachings is acceptance of the Vedas  with reverance,  recognition of the fact that the

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path of  Bhakti or  devotion leads  to Moksha, insistence or devotion to  Lord Krishna  and  a  determination  to  remove corrupt practices and restore Hindu religion to its original glory and purity. This shows unambiguously and unequivocally that Swaminarayan was a Hindu saint. Further, the facts that initiation is  necessary to  become a Satsangi, that persons of other religions could join the sect by initiation without any process  of proselytising  on such  occasions, and  that Swaminarayan  himself   is  treated   as  a   God,  are  not inconsistent with  the basic Hindu religious and philosophic theory." 798      In Digyadarsan  Rajendra Ramdassji  Varu  v.  State  of Andfhra Pradesh  and Anr.(1)dealing  with Articles 25 and 26 of  the   Constitution  this   Court  on   the   facts   and circumstances of the case held:           "It  has   nowhere  been   established  that   the      petitioner  has   been  prohibited   or  debarred  from      professing practising  and propagating  his religion. A      good deal  material has  been placed  on the  record to      show that  the entire  math is  being guarded by police      constables but  that does  not mean that the petitioner      cannot be  allowed  to  enter  the  math  premises  and      exercise the  fundamental right conferred by Art. 25(I)      of the  Constitution As  regards the  contravention  of      clause (b)  and (d)  of Art. 26 there is nothing in ss.      46 and  47 which empowers the Commissioner to interfere      with the  autonomy of the religious denomination in the      matter of  deciding as to what rites and ceremonies are      essential according  to the  tenets of the religion the      denomination professes  or practises  nor has  it  been      shown  that  any  such  order  has  been  made  by  the      Commissioner or that the Assistant Commissioner who has      been  put  in  charge  of  the  day-to-day  affairs  is      interfering in such matters." On these  observations the  impugned Act  in that  case  was upheld by the Court.      In 1.  Krishnan v.  G.D.M. Committee(2) a full Bench of the Kerala High Court dealing with Arts. 25 and 26 observed:           "...the real purpose and intendment of Articles 25      and 26  is to  guarantee especially  to  the  religious      minorities in  this country  the  freedom  to  profess,      practise and propagate their Religion, to establish and      maintain  institutions  for  religious  and  charitable      purposes, to  manage its  own  affairs  in  matters  of      religion,  to   own  and   acquire  properties  and  to      administer  such  properties  in  accordance  with  law      subject  only   to  the  limitations  and  restrictions      indicated in  those Articles.  No  doubt,  the  freedom      guaranteed by  these two Articles applied not merely to      religious minorities  but to  all persons  (Article 25)      and all 799      religious denominations  or sections  thereof  (Article      26). A  But, in  interpreting the  scope and content of      the guarantee  contained in  the two Articles the Court      will always  have to  keep in  mind  the  real  purpose      underlying the incorporation of these provisions in the      fundamental rights  chapter. When a challenge is raised      before a  court against  the validity or any statute as      contravening the  fundamental rights  guaranteed  under      Article 25 and 26 it is from the above perspective that      tho court  will approach  the question and the tests to      be applied  for adjudging  the validity of the statutes      will be  the same irrespective of whether the person or

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    denomination complaining  about the infringement of the      said fundamental  right belongs to a religious minority      or not."      In Ramalingayya  v. The  Commissioner of Charitable and Hindu Religious  Institutions &  Endowments(l) dealing  with ’religious denomination’ the Andhra Pradesh High Court held:           "Thus it  is the  distinct common faith and common      spiritual organisation  and the  belief in a particular      religious teacher  of philosophy on which the religious      denomination is  founded or  based, that is the essence      of the  matter, but  not any  caste, or  sub-caste or a      particular deity  worship  by  a  particular  caste  or      community."      In United  States v.  Danial Andrew  Seegar(2) the U.S. Supreme Court  had to  construe the provisions of s. 6(j) of the Universal  Military Training  and Service  Act  of  1948 which,  as  a  prerequisite  of  exempting  a  conscientious objector from  military service, requires l? his belief in a relation to  a Supreme  Being involving  duties superior  to those arising  from any human relation. Defendant’s claim to exemption as  conscientious objector  was denied  after  he, professing religious  belief and  faith and  not disavowing, although not  clearly demonstrating any belief in a relation to a  Supreme Being,  stated that  "the cosmic  order  does, perhaps, suggest  a creative  intelligence" and  decried the tremendous  "spiritual"   price  man   must  pay   for   his willingness to  destroy human  life. The expression ’Supreme Being’ was liberally construed. 800      The Court  dealing with  the idea  of God  quoted  from various religious teachers thus:           "The community of all peoples is one. One is their      origin for  God made  the entire human race live on all      the face of the earth. One, too, is their ultimate end,      God. Men  expect from  the various religions answers to      the riddles  of the human condition: What is man ? What      is the  meaning and  purpose of our lives 1 What is the      moral good  and what is sin ? What are death, judgment,      and retribution after death ?           Ever since  primordial days, numerous peoples have      had a  certain perception  of that  hidden power  which      hovers over  the course  of things  and over the events      that make  up the  lives of man; some have even come to      know of  a Supreme  Being and  Father. Religions  in an      advanced culture  have been  able to  use more  refined      concepts  and   a  more  developed  language  in  their      struggle for an answer to man’s religious questions           The proper  question to ask, therefore, is not the      futile one.  Do you  believe in  God ? But rather, What      kind of God do you believe in ?           Instead  of   positing  a   personal  God,   whose      existence man  can  neither  prove  nor  disprove,  the      ethical concept  is founded  on human experience. It is      anthropocentric, not theocentric. Religion, for all the      various definitions  that have  been given  of it, must      surely mean  the devotion  of man  to the highest ideal      that he  can conceive. And that ideal is a community of      spirits in which the latent moral potentialities of men      shall have been elicited by their reciprocal endeavours      to  cultivate  the  best  in  their  fellow  men.  What      ultimate reality  is we  do not  know; but  we have the      faith that  it expresses  itself in  the human world as      the power which inspires in men moral purpose."      On an  analysis of  the aforesaid  cases it  is evident that even  assuming that  the Society  or  Auroville  was  a

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religious denomination,  clause (b) of Art. 26 guarantees to a religious  denomination a  right to manage its own affairs in matters  of religion.  It will  be seen  that besides the right to manage its own affairs in matters of 801 religion, which is given by clause (b), the next two clauses of Art. 26 A guarantee to a religious denomination the right to acquire  and own property and to administer such property in accordance  with law.  The administration of its property by a  religious denomination  has  thus  been  placed  on  a different footing  from the  right to manage its own affairs in matters  of religion.  The latter  is a fundamental right which no  legislature can  take away, whereas the former can be regulated  by laws  which  the  legislature  can  validly impose.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  questions  merely relating to a religious group or institution are not matters of religion  to which clause (b) of the article applies. The impugned Act  had not  taken away the right of management in matters of  religion of  a religious  denomination,  if  the Society or  Auroville is  a religious  denomination at  all, rather it  has taken  away the  right of  management of  the property of Auroville.      Thus the  impugned Act neither violates Article 25, nor Article 26 of the Constitution.      The  impugned   Act  was   also  feebly  sought  to  be challenged as violating Arts. 29 and 30 of the Constitution. We are  at a  loss to understand how these two articles have any bearing  on the  impugned Act. These two articles confer four distinct rights:      (i)  Right of  any section  of citizens to conserve its           own language, script or culture (Art. 29(1)).      (ii) Right of all religious or linguistic minorities to           establish and  administer educational institutions           of their choice (Art. 30(I)).    (iii)  Right of  an educational institution not to be dis           criminated against  in matter  of state aid on the           ground that  it  is  under  the  management  of  a           minority (Art. 30(2)).      (iv) Right of a citizen not to be denied admission into           a state  maintained  or  state  aided  educational           institution on  grounds only  of  religion,  race,           caste, language (Art. 29(2)).      The impugned Act does not seek to curtail the rights of any section of citizens to conserve its own language, script or culture 802 conferred by  Art. 29. In order to claim the benefit of Art. 30(I) the community must show: (a) that it is a religious or linguistic  minority,   (b)   that   the   institution   was established by  it. Without  satisfying these two conditions it cannot claim the guaranteed rights to administer it.      In re The Kerala Education Bill(l) Article 30(1) of the Constitution which  deals with  the right  of minorities  to establish and  administer education  institutions, came  for consideration. The  Kerala Educational Bill, 1957, which had been passed  by the Kerala Legislative Assembly was reserved by the Governor for consideration by the President.      The contention  of the  State of  Kerala was  that  the minority communities  may exercise  their fundamental  right under Article 30(1) by establishing educational institutions of their  choice wherever  they like and administer the same in their  own way  and need  not seek  recognition from  the Government, but  that if  the minority communities desire to have  state  recognition  they  must  submit  to  the  terms imposed, as  conditions precedent  to recognition,  on every

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educational  institution.   The  claim  of  the  educational institutions of  the minority communities, on the other hand was  that  their  fundamental  right  under  Art.  30(1)  is absolute and  could not  be  subjected  to  any  restriction whatever. This  Court, however,  did not  accept the extreme views propounded  by the parties on either side but tried to reconcile the two. It observed:           Article 29(])  gives protection  to any section of      citizens residing  in the  territory of  India having a      distinct language, P script or culture of its own right      to conserve  the same the distinct languages, script or      culture of  a minority  community can best be conserved      by and  through educational  institutions, for it is by      education that their culture can be inculcated into the      impressionable mind of the children of their community.      It  is   through  educational   institutions  that  the      language and  script of  the minority  community can be      preserved, improved and strengthened. It is, therefore,      that Art.  30(I) confers  on  all  minorities,  whether      based on  religion or  language, the right to establish      and  administer   educational  institutions   of  their      choice. 803      The minorities,  quite understandably,  regard it  as A      essential that  the education  of their children should      be in  accordance with the teachings of their religion,      and they  hold, quite  honestly, that such an education      cannot be obtained in ordinary schools designed for all      the members  of the  public but  can only be secured in      schools conducted  under the  influence and guidance of      people well  versed in the tenets of their religion and      in the  traditions of  their  culture.  The  minorities      evidently desire  that education  should be imparted to      the children  of their  community .  in  an  atmosphere      congenial  to   the  growth   of  their   culture.  our      Constitution makers  recognised the  validity of  their      claim and  to allay  their fears  conferred on them the      fundamental  rights   referred  to   above.   But   the      conservation  of  the  distinct  languages,  script  or      culture is  not  the  only  object  of  choice  of  the      minority communities. They also desire that scholars of      their educational  institutions should  go out  in  the      world  well   and  sufficiently   equipped   with   the      qualifications necessary  for a  useful career in life.      But according to the Education Code now in operation to      which it  is permissible  to refer for ascertaining the      effect of  the impugned provisions on existing state of      affairs, the  scholars of  unrecognised schools are not      permitted to  avail themselves of the opportunities for      higher education in the University and are not eligible      for entering  the public services. Without recognition,      therefore, the  educational institutions established or      to be  established by  the minority  communities cannot      fulfill the real objects of their choice and-the rights      under Art.  30(1) cannot  be effectively exercised. The      right to  establish educational  institutions of  their      choice must,  therefore, mean  the right  to  establish      real institutions  which  will  effectively  serve  the      needs of their community and the scholars who resort to      their educational institutions."      In Rev.  Sidhaibhai Sabhai  and Ors. v. State of Bombay and Anr.(l)  dealing with article 30(I) of the Constitution, this Court held:           "The  right   established  by   Art.  30(I)  is  a      fundamental right  declared in  terms absolute.  Unlike

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    the fundamental 804      freedom guaranteed  by Art.  19, it  is not  subject to      reasonable restrictions.  It is  intended to  be a real      right for  the protection  of  the  minorities  in  the      matter of  setting up  of educational  institutions  of      their own choice. The right is intended to be effective      and is  not to be whittled down by so-called regulative      measures conceived  in the interest not of the minority      educational institutions,  but of  the  public  or  the      nation  as   a  whole.   If  every  order  which  while      maintaining  the   formal  character   of  a   minority      institution destroys  the power  of  administration  is      held  justifiable  because  it  is  in  the  public  or      national interest,  though not  in its  interest as  an      educational institution,  the right  guaranteed by Art.      30(1) will  be but  a "teasing  illusion", a promise of      unreality. Regulations  which may  lawfully be  imposed      either  by   legislative  or   executive  action  as  a      condition of  receiving grant or of recognition must be      directed to  making the institution while retaining its      character  as   a  minority  institution  effective  an      educational institution. Such regulation must satisfy a      dual test-the test of reasonableness, and the test that      it is  regulative of  the educational  character of the      institution and  is conducive to making the institution      an effective  vehicle of  education  for  the  minority      community or other persons who resort to it."      In  State   of  Kerala   v.  Mother  Provincial(l)  the provisions of  the Kerala  University Act,  1969  which  was passed to reorganise the University of Kerala with a view to establishing  a   teaching,  residential   and   affiliating University for  the  southern  districts  of  the  State  of Kerala, were  challenged. Some  of the  provisions  effected private colleges,  particularly those  founded  by  minority communities in  the State. Their constitutional validity was challenged by  some members  of those communities on various grounds in  writ petitions  filed in  the High  Court.  This Court held:           "The minority  institutions cannot  he allowed  to      fall below  the standards  of  excellence  expected  of      educational  institutions,   or  under   the  guise  of      exclusive right of management, to decline to follow the      general pattern.  While the  management must be left to      them, they  may be  compelled  to  keep  in  step  with      others." 805      On an analysis of the two articles, Art. 29 and Art. 30 and the  three cases  referred to  above, it is evident that the impugned  Act does  not seek to curtail the right of any section of  citizens to conserve its own language, script or culture conferred  by Art. 29. The benefit of Art. 30(I) can be claimed  by the  community only  on proving  that it is a religious or  linguistic minority  and that  the institution was established  by it.  In the view that we have taken that Auroville or  the Society  is not  a religious denomination, Articles 29  and 30  would not  be attracted and, therefore, the impugned  Act cannot be held to be violative of Articles 29 and 30 of the Constitution.      This leads us to the third ground, namely, the impugned Act being  violative  of  Article  14  of  the  Constitution inasmuch as  Sri Aurobindo  Society has been singled out for hostile treatment,  and  the  legislation  is  against  this particular institution. In order to appreciate this argument it would  be necessary  to refer  to the circumstances which

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led to the passing of the impugned Act.      Sri Aurobindo Society is a society registered under the West Bengal  Societies  Registration  Act,  1961.  The  main objective of  the Society is inter alia to make known to the member. and  people in  general the  aims and  ideals of Sri Aurobindo and  the Mother; their system of Integral Yoga and to work for its fulfillment in all possible ways and for the adoption of  a spiritualised  society as  envisaged  by  Sri Aurobindo. The  Society was engaged right from its inception in collecting  funds for  the  promotion  of  works  of  Sri Aurbindo and  the Mother.  The Society  contributes funds to Sri  Aurobindo   Ashram  and  its  international  Centre  of Education, Auroville.  As the  work of  the Society began to grow it needed larger and larger funds for the sustenance of its own activities. In due course the Society opened several centres all  over India,  particularly at  Calcutta, Bombay, New Delhi and Madras. It has centres also in U.S.A., Zurich. Osaka and  Nairobi. Sri Aurobindo Society has two registered offices, one  at Calcutta  and another  at  Pondicherry.  In order to  facilitate the  work of  Sri Aurobindo  Society to collect funds,  on a  representation made by the Society the Income-tax  Department  of  the  Government  of  India  gave exemption to  the  Society  from  income-tax  under  section 35(1)(iii) of  the Income  Tax Act. Income-tax exemption was claimed by  the Society  on the ground that it is engaged in educational, cultural  and scientific  activities and social sciences research.  It was  on this  understanding that  the exemption from income-tax was granted to the 806 Society and  it is  through this exemption that the Society, had collected a huge amount from the public.      For the  first few  years the  development of Auroville showed a remarkable progress and development and things were growing at  a rapid pace. A number of Indians and foreigners settled down  in Auroville and devoted themselves to various activities of  planning, designing,  agriculture, education, construction and  other works  such as  those  of  hand-made paper and  other crafts and industries. A remarkable harmony among members  of Auroville  was visible  and  this  gave  a promise to  the Government  of India of an early fulfillment of the  ideals  for  which  Auroville  was  established  and encouraged by  UNESCO and  other international organisations of the world.      After the  passing away of the Mother in 1973, however, the  situation   changed   and   the   Government   received information that  the affairs  of the Society were not being properly managed,  that there was mismanagement of the funds of  the  Society  and  diversion  of  the  funds  meant  for Auroville to other purposes.      The accounts of Sri Aurobindo Society were audited upto the year  ending 31st  December, 1974. For the years 1960 to 1971 the  E;  audit  was  conducted  by  late  Sri  Satinath Chattopadhyaya, Chartered  Accountant and for the years 1972 to 1974  by Sri  T. R.  Thulsiram, Chartered  Accountant and Internal Auditor of the Society. The letter addressed by him to the  President, Sri  Aurobindo Society dated May 26, 1976 relating to  the affairs  of Bharat  Niwas as on 31st March, 1976 is  revealing one and the relevant portion is extracted below:           "Thus we  have an  unutilised deficit  of about 10      lakhs at  the end  of 31.12.74 and of about 12 lakhs at      the end  of 1975 or upto 31.3.76. The situation has not      improved uptil now. The activities of construction have      almost come  to a  close after 31.12 74. Further, there      are heavy  bank overdrafts  apart from the reduction in

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    O. D.  facilities and  freezing of  the money  in O. D.      account.  Therefore,   in  these  circumstances  it  is      clearly seen  that government  monies received  for the      specific purpose of Bharat Niwas have been diverted for      other purposes  and  there  are  no  more  free  liquid      resources either  as cash  or in  bank accounts.  So we      cannot  explain  saying  that  monies  are  immediately      available for  construction and  that  the construction      activities are 807      being continued  without stop. This really is a serious      matter A that calls for the proper solution.           Therefore,  in   the  above  circumstances  it  is      absolutely necessary  that earlier  steps be  taken  to      correct the  situation before  serious audit objections      are raised by the Government Auditors. We are afraid to      say that  we ourselves  would be  constrained to make a      qualified report of audit, if the state of affairs does      not get corrected immediately."      The situation in. Auroville became so acute that at the instance of  the Ministry  of Home  Affairs,  Government  of India, an  enquiry  was  conducted  in  1976  br  the  Chief Secretary,  Pondichery,   into  certain   aspects   of   the functioning of  Sri Aurobindo  Society. The  report  of  the Chief Secretary  mentioned instances of serious irregularies in the  management of the Society, suspected misuse of funds and auditors’ comments about the misutilisation of funds and its diversion,  and it was suggested that a further probe in the financial  matters  of  the  Society  and  organisations connected with  the Auroville  Project may be made by a team of competent auditors.      Considering the  special position  of  Auroville  as  a cultural   township   of   international   importance,   the substantial grants  of the  order of  more than Rs. 90 lakhs given by  the Government  of India and the State Governments towards the  fulfillment of  the ideals  of  Auroville,  the presence of  a large  number of  foreigners in Auroville who had left  their hearth  and home  for  Auroville  which  had received sponsorship  from Indian Government and UNESCO, the continued groupism  and infighting  which was  bringing  bad name to  Auroville and  the special  responsibility  of  the Government of  India in  regard  p  to  the  foundation  and development-of Auroville, the Government of India decided to set up  a  committee  under  the  Chairmanship  of  the  Lt. Governor of Pondichery with the Chief Secretary of the Tamil Nadu and  Additional  Secretary  of  the  Ministry  of  Home Affairs as  members by  a resolution of the Ministry of Home Affairs Government of India, dated 21st December, 1976.      The above Committee got a quick audit made of the funds of the  Society and  the grants  given to  the  Society  for Auroville through a team of competent auditors.      An important  finding of  this Committee  was that  the earlier   apprehension    about   instances    of    serious irregularities in the manage 808 ment of  the Society,  misutilisation of  the funds, and the diversion was  confirmed. This  Committee also  submitted to the Government  of India  two volumes  of the  audit report. Some of  the other important findings of the Committee based on audit reports were as follows:           "The   professional    services   required    from      Architects for  the construction  of Phase  I of Bharat      Niwas were  not rendered by them and still full payment      was made to these architects.           Rs.  13.30   lacs  sanctioned   by  various  State

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    Governments for  construction of  pavillions  of  their      respective States  were diverted  and utilised  towards      construction  in   Bharat   Niwas   for   common   zone      facilities-this was  without the  approval of the State      Government.           Whilst the  books of  Bharat Niwas show that there      was an unutilised balance of Rs. 22.64 lacs the Project      was without  any  liquid  resources-thus  showing  that      moneys received  out of  Govt. grants were diverted for      other activities notwithstanding that this position was      brought to the notice of the Society by their statutory      auditor in its letter dated 26.5.76.           Although there  was no  fresh receipt  of steel in      Bharat Niwas  Phase 2 the stock was purportely revalued      at a  higher rate of Rs 2000 per metric ton against the      earlier rate  of Rs.  1700 per  metric ton  adopted  on      31.12.73 This  resulted is  an  over-statement  of  the      value of stock to the amount of Rs. 42,000/-.           There was  a transfer  of materials of stock worth      Rs. 2.30  lacs to  Auro Stores  by a  journal entry  on      31.12.1975 Auro  Stores is  a concern of Navjattas. The      audit team concluded that as a result of this there was      an unreal expenditure which had not resulted in outflow      of  resources   and  resulted   in   overstatement   of      expenditure on Bharat Niwas.           An undischarged amount of Rs. 1.45 lacs payable to      the contractors Messrs E.C.C. Ltd. towards the construc      tion of  Bharat  Niwas  stood  included  in  the  total      expenditure as on 31.12.74-the utilisation certificates      furnished 809      with regard  to  total  expenditure  were  held  to  be      incorrect to that extent.           Although materials  purchased out  of Govt. grants      could not  be hypothecated  without the approval of the      Government the  Society hypothecated  steel  from  Auro      Stores and  obtained a  loan of  Rs. 6.88 lacs from the      State Bank  of India-resulting  in  an  expenditure  of      interest charge  of Rs.  9561.40 which  was held  to be      inadmissible and an irregularity.           Although the  Society  completed  construction  of      Health Centre  in Dec. 1973 at a total cost of over Rs.      2 lacs  and the  Health Centre started functioning from      Dec. 1973 the Society had not furnished the utilisation      certificates  in   the  prescribed  form  nor  was  the      completion   report   duly   certified   by   the   PWD      authorities.           Rs. One  lac was  stated to have been received for      the Project  of World  University"-and  the  money  was      stated  to   be  utilised.   There  is  no  such  World      University in Auroville.           A difference  of Rs. 1,29,848/- was noticed in the      case of  the value  of a  piece of  land  purchased-the      value of  the land  said to have been purchased and not      entered in the register was Rs. 88,5261/-and the amount      said to  have been  paid in excess of the value for the      land actually purchased was Rs. 31,322.           The operation  of purchase  of lands  was  through      individuals who  were  given  huge  sums  of  money  as      advances. It  was noticed  that in  one transaction  an      amount of  Rs. 43,250/-representing  the balance out of      advance paid  to one  V. Sunderamurthy  was adjusted as      being the  cost of  stamp papers  used during 1971. The      said individual had already taken into account the cost      of stamp  papers whilst  adjusting all  other  advances

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    during 1971.  The voucher  for this amount also did not      give the  details of the document numbers in respect of      which stamp papers worth Rs. 43,250/ were used. 810           In 1975-76  land to  the extent of 23.86 acres was      purchased at  the cost of Rs. 91,496 but was registered      in the  names of  four individuals and the value of the      lands so registered in individual names were treated as      advances to  these  individuals.  The  names  of  these      individuals  were   "Maggi",  "Kalit’,  "Shyamala"  and      "Ravindra Reddy".           The audit  team found  that assets and liabilities      of the  project were  overstated to  the extent  of Rs.      5,l0,670.           The balance-sheet of Auroville project has been so      framed that the assets side does not throw any light as      to whether the corresponding assets from donations have      been acquired and the problem is aggravated by the fact      that a register of assets is not maintained.           There was  a complete  lack of  financial  control      which was  the most  serious drawback of the system and      this want of financial control was revealed in a number      of established  and conventional  procedure which would      have serious implications.           It  was   not  possible  for  the  Audit  Team  to      establish nor  the Society  could establish that moneys      paid were  really exchanged  with certain  materials or      goods of  corresponding value.  The  lack  of  adequate      scrutiny resulted in the fact that in most of the cases      the bills  were not  supported by  adequate details  of      materials having been passed.           The expenditure  of Auroville  project working out      to nearly  3 crores,  there was no system of control of      expenditure-no  rules  and  regulations  or  procedures      according to  which a  particular individual  or office      bearer  could   incur  an   expenditure  only   upto  a      particular limit  and not  above that. Persons who were      authorised to  operate bank accounts had full authority      to draw  as much as they wanted and there was no system      of reporting or feed-back.           In  view   of   the   large   scale   construction      activities,  large   amounts  of  stores  materials  of      various descriptions were being handled by the project.      We have  not come  across proper  records of stores and      stock accounts  being maintained  by the  project, This      indeed was a serious drawback 811      since in  the absence  of such  a  system  it  was  not      possible to  A verify  from the records that the moneys      which were  shown as  having been spent for purchase of      materials were really paid in exchange of the materials      of the  required quantity  and quality  and whether the      material  purchased   was  actually   received  by  the      project, whether the quantity which was shown as having      been utilised for the construction has been actually so      utilised and the balance of stores which represented by      the value was the real balance representing the various      stock items.           Huge amounts of cash were being handled by persons      operating  the   main  account   and  the   number   of      individuals who were given advances-there was no system      under which cash could be verified at any interval.           Even  apart   from  the  audit  report,  one  very      important point  may be mentioned. The Society has been      claiming that  they have  been holding more than Rs. 20

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    lacs in  reserve in the account of Aurobindo Society to      meet their  obligations with  regard to  Auroville. And      yet the Society has incurred heavy debts in the name of      Auroville and  allocated huge  accumulation of interest      to the extent of Rs. 20 lacs."      The Committee  came to the conclusion that the time was ripe for  taking recourse  two either  of the  following two alternatives:      (a)  Incorporation  of   Sri  Auroville  Society  by  a           statute as  a society  of national  importance and           bringing it  under Entry  63 of  the Union List of           the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution;      (b)  Takeover of the management of Auroville project by           the Government for a limited period by legislation           under Art. 31 A(l)(b) of the Constitution.      There was  an intensive  examination of the Committee’s report  as   also  of   the  audit   report.  All  kinds  of possibilities were  explored by  the Government of India for remedying the  situation including  several discussions with the managers of the Sri Aurobindo Society.      At the  same time,  it was apparent that the Government grants which  were given for the construction works remained unutilised and 812 diverted. The  construction work  itself was  stagnant.  The Auroville township  had been  conceived to be spread over 10 sq. miles (minimum) for about 50,000 people. Considering the multi-dimensional task,  the work  which was accomplished by 1976 was  not even marginal. It became obvious that the work had already come to a standstill and that there was not much prospect of further growth of Auroville.      On a  close examination  of the  audit  report  certain clarifications were  sought from  those at  the helm  of the affairs in the Sri Aurobindo Society on various points which had come  to light  through the  audit report.  AD extensive correspondence on  this subject  was, therefore, undertaken. The Government  of India  received from  the  Sri  Aurobindo Society answers  which were  often evasive  and  which  only confirmed the  findings of  the Committee’s report and audit report.      It  may  also  be  mentioned  that  the  atmosphere  in Auroville became  so bad  that it gave rise to law and order problem. The  Government of  Tamil Nadu  was obliged several times to  promulgate orders  under s. 144 Cr. P. C. Even so, the situation  remained so  bad that  there were about three instances in which residents of Auroville sustained injuries because of fighting between groups.      The  Government  of  India  examined  the  charges  and counter charges  in detail.  Union Education  Minister  also paid a  visit to Auroville towards the end of October, 1980. Thus after  full consideration  of various  aspects  of  the problem, the Government of India decided to take recourse to the promulgation  of an ordinance. Accordingly, the impugned ordinance was promulgated on 10th November, 1980.      Mr. K.  K. Venugopal,  appearing for  the  petitioners, however,  referred   to  the   decision  of  the  respective Ministries on  the audit  report.  During  October-November, 1979,  he  contended  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  the Ministry of  Home Affairs took decision on six major points. One of the points on which decision was taken was that there were no  legal grounds for takeover of Auroville and neither the Government  was interested.  This decision, among others was later on endorsed by the respective Union Ministers. The report submitted  by Mr.  P. P. Srivastava, Joint Secretary, Ministry  of   Home  Affairs,  who  visited  Pondichery  and

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Auroville on a fact finding 813 mission from  8th  to  10th  October,  1980,  contained  the following A observations:           "All along  the  view  of  the  Ministry  of  Home      Affairs has  been that  there is no case of takeover of      the administration  of Auroville.  This is  an internal      matter and  the  Government  need  not  interfere.  The      Government of  Tamil Nadu should be asked to depute two      officers  to   help  the  Shri  Aurobindo  Society  for      administering the finances and the administration."      The contention  of Mr.  Venugopal  is  that  the  audit report had  once been  considered and the Government did not choose to  take any  further steps on assurance given on the behalf of the Society that the irregularities pointed out by the audit  report will  be rectified  and proper  management would be  carried out  in future.  There was  absolutely  no reason for Government to have come forward with the proposal of the  impugned ordinance  or the  impugned Act taking over the management  of  the  Auroville  from  the  Society.  The circumstances  obtaining   on  the   date  of  the  impugned ordinance  or   the   impugned   Act   were   the   relevant considerations for  the enactment. And the earlier report of the  audit   which  had   already  been  considered  by  the Government and the irregularities having been condoned, they cannot be  made the  basis for the impugned ordinance or the Act.      For the  respondents, however,  it  is  contended  that despite the  assurance given  by the  office bearers  of the Society nothing  tangible had been done and the condition of the institution was going from bad to worse.      The Government was involved in this case inasmuch as it was at  the instance  of the  Government that the UNESCO and other members  of UNESCO  had  generously  donated  for  the construction of Auroville, the cultural township to the tune of crores  of rupees.  It was,  therefore, a matter of vital concern  for  the  Government  of  India  to  see  that  the donations so  generously received  from Government  of India and from  other States  as also  from abroad  were  properly utilised to  carry out the mission of Shri Aurobindo and the Mother.      In view  of the  prevailing situation  in the Auroville and the  Society the  only way  to put the management on the wheels was to take over the management of the institution. 814      It was  further contended  by Mr. Venugopal that if the management of  the institution  had been  taken over  by the Government on  the ground  of mis-management, there could be other  institutions   where  similar   situation  might   be prevailing. There  should have  been a  general  legislation rather than  singling out Shri Aurobindo Society for hostile treatment.      The  argument  cannot  be  accepted  for  two  reasons. Firstly, because  it has not been pointed out which were the other institutions where similar situations were prevailing. Besides,  there   is  a  uniqueness  with  this  institution inasmuch as  the Government  is also involved. Even a single institution may  be taken  as  a  class.  The  C:  situation prevailing in  the Auroville  had converted the dream of the Mother into  a nightmare.  There had  arisen acute  law  and order  situation  in  the  Auroville,  numerous  cases  were pending against  various foreigners, the funds meant for the Auroville had  been diverted  towards other purposes and the atmosphere was getting out of hand. In the circumstances the Government intervened  and  promulgated  the  ordinance  and

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later on substituted it by the impugned enactment. It cannot be said  that it is violative of Article 14 on that account. We get support for our view from the following decisions.      In  Budhan   Chowdhury  v.  The  State  of  Bihar(l)  a Constitution Bench  of seven  Judges of this Court explained the true meaning and scope of Article 14 as follows:           "It is  now well established that while article 14      forbids  class   legislation,  it   does   not   forbid      reasonable   classification   for   the   purposes   of      legislation. In  order, however,  to pass  the test  of      permissible  classification   two  conditions  must  be      fulfilled, namely  (i) that  the classification must be      founded   on    an   intelligible   differentia   which      distinguishes  persons   or  things  that  are  grouped      together from  others left  out of  the group and, (ii)      that the  differentia must  have a rational relation to      the object  sought to  be achieved  by the  statute  in      question.  The   classification  may   be  founded   on      different bases,  namely, geographical, or according to      objects or occupation or the like, What is necessary is      that there  must  be  a  nexus  between  the  basis  of      classification  and   the  object   of  the  Act  under      consideration. It  is  also  well  established  by  the      decisions of this Court that 815      article  14  condemns  discrimination  not  only  by  a      substantive law but also by a law of procedure." These observations  were quoted  with approval by this Court in Shri  Ram Krishna  Dalmia v.  Shri Justice S.R. Tendolkar and Ors.(l) In this case the Court further laid down:      "(a) that  a law  may be  constitutional even though it           relates to  a single  individual if, on account of           some special  circumstances or  reasons applicable           to him  and not  applicable to others, that single           individual may be treated as a class by himself;       (b)  that there  is always  a presumption in favour of           the constitutionality  of  an  enactment  and  the           burden is  upon him  who attacks  it to  show that           there  has  been  a  clear  transgression  of  the           constitutional principles;      (c)   that it  must be  presumed that  the  legislature           under stands and correctly appreciates the need of           its own  people, that  its laws  are  directed  to           problems made  manifest by experience and that its           discriminations are based on adequate grounds;       (d)  that the legislature is free to recognise degrees           of harm  and may confine its restrictions to those           cases where the need is deemed to be the clearest,      (e)  that in order to sustain the presumption of consti           tutionality the  court may take into consideration           matters of  common knowledge,  matters  of  common           report, the  history of  the times  and may assume           every  state  of  facts  which  can  be  conceived           existing at the time of legislation; and      (f)   that  while  good  faith  and  knowledge  of  the           existing conditions  on the  part of a legislature           are to  be presumed,  if there  is nothing  on the           face of  the law  or the surrounding circumstances           brought to  the notice  of the  court on which the           classification  may   reasonably  be  regarded  as           based, the presumption of constitutionality cannot           be carried to the extent of 816           always holding that there must be some undisclosed           and  unknown   reasons  for   subjecting   certain

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         individuals  or   corporations   to   hostile   or           discriminating legislation."      In Ram  Prasad Narayan  Sahi and  Anr. v.  The State of Bihar and  ors.(l) the  Court of  Wards had  granted to  the appellant a  large area of land belonging to the Bettiah Raj which was  then under  the management of the Court of Wards, on the  recommendation of  the Board of Revenue, at half the usual rates.  The Bihar Legislature passed an Act called the Sathi Lands  (Restoration) Act,  1950 which  declared  that, notwithstanding anything  contained in  any law for the time being in  force the  settlement granted  to  the  appellants shall be  null and  void and that no party to the settlement or his  successors in  interest  shall  be  deemed  to  have acquired any right or incurred any liability thereunder, and empowered the  Collector to  eject the  appellants  if  they refused to  restore the lands. The appellants challenged the constitutionality of  the Act  under Article 226. This Court held:           "The dispute  between the appellants and the State      was really  a  private  dispute  and  a  matter  to  be      determined by  a judicial  tribunal in  accordance with      the law applicable to the case, and, as the Legislature      had, in  passing the impugned enactment singled out the      appellants and  deprived them  of their  right to  have      this dispute  adjudicated upon  by a  duly  constituted      Court, the  enactment  contravened  the  provisions  of      article 14  of the  Constitution  which  guarantees  to      every citizen the equal protection of the laws, and was      void.           Legislation  which   singles  out   a   particular      individual from the fallow subjects and visits him with      a disability  which is  not imposed upon the others and      against which even the right of complaint is taken away      is highly discriminatory." The facts  of this case are distinguishable from the case in hand. In  that case  the legislation  was made  only  for  a particular person.  In the  cases in  hand on account of the uniqueness  of   the  institution  and  on  account  of  the involvement of the Government and the 817 stake being  a high one about public funds, Parliament could take a particular institution as a class by itself.      In Ram  Chandra Deb  v.  The  State  of  Orrisa(1)  Sri Jagannath Temple Act, 1955 was sought to be challenged being violative of  Article 14 of the Constitution inasmuch as the legislature had  made a separate Act for a particular temple alone and  there were  adequate  provisions  in  the  Orrisa Religious Endowments  Act, 1951  which was  the general  Act applicable to  all public temples and religious institutions and contained  adequate provisions  to meet  all  situations similar contention as raised in the present cases was raised in that  case that  a particular temple had been singled out for  hostile  discrimination.  It  was  contended  that  the Commissioner of  Hindu Religious Endowments had ample powers under the Act to frame a scheme for the proper management of the temple  also and  the legislature by enacting a separate piece of  legislation for  the temple  alone,  ignoring  the other temples  of Orrisa  such as those at Bhubaneswar where also there  might be similar administration, bad contravened Article 14.  This argument  was, however,  repelled  by  the Orrisa High Court with the following observations:           "The  principles   underlying  Art.   14  of   the      Constitution have  been reiterated in several decisions      of the  Supreme Court  and it  is unnecessary to repeat      them in  detail. All  that article  prohibits is  class

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    legislation and not reason- able classification for the      purpose of  legislation so  long as such classification      is not  arbitrary and "bears a rational relation to the      object  sought  to  be  achieved  by  the  statutes  in      question".. In  Charanjit Lal  v. Union  of India (1950      SCR 869)  a separate  law enacted  for one  company was      held not  to offend  Art. 14 of the Constitution on the      ground that  there were  special  reasons  for  passing      legislation for that company." When that  case came  up in  appeal to  this  Court  at  the instance of  the son  of the petitioner, in Raja Birakishore v. The State of Orrisa(2) this Court held:           "There  is   no  violation   of  Art.  14  of  the      Constitution. The  Jagannath Temple  occupies a  unique      position in  the State  of Orrisa  and is  a temple  of      national importance and 818      no other  temple in  that State can compare with it. It      stands in  a class  by itself  and considering the fact      that it  attracts -  pilgrims from  all over  India, in      large numbers,  it could  be  the  subject  of  special      consideration by  the State  Government. A  law may  be      constitutional even  though  it  related  to  a  single      individual if  on account  of special  circumstances or      reasons applicable to him and not applicable to others,      that single individual may be treated as a class by him      self."      It was next contended that there were provisions in the Societies Registration  Act itself  to  meet  the  situation arising  in  Auroville.  There  was  to  necessity  for  the impugned ordinance or the enactment. Shri Venugopal referred to the  various provisions of the Societies Registration Act to show  that it  was open  to the  Registrar to call for an explanation  from   the  Society   for  any   illegality  or irregularity committed  by them  or  if  there  was  a  mis- appropriation of  funds,. inasmuch  as the  Act was  a self- contained Code and there was absolutely no justification for any ordinance  or the enactment. The law and order situation also could  be controlled  by resorting to the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure.      Whether  the  remedies  provided  under  the  Societies Registration Act  were sufficient  to meet the exigencies of the situation  is not  for the Court to decide but it is for the Government  and  if  the  Government  thought  that  the conditions prevailing  in the  Auroville and the Society can be ameliorated  not by  resorting to  the provisions  of the Societies Registration  Act but by a special enactment, that is an area of the Government and not of the Court.      Para 6 of the preamble of the Act gives the reasons for the enactment. It reads:           "AND whereas  pursuant to  the complaints received      with regard  to mis-use  of  funds  by  Shri  Aurobindo      Society, a  Committee was set up under the Chairmanship      of the Lt. Governor of Pondicherry with representatives      of the  Government of Tamil Nadu and of the Ministry of      Home Affairs  in the  Central Government,  and the said      Committee had  after detailed  scrutiny of the accounts      of Sri  Aurobindo Society  found instances  of  serious      irregularities in  the management  of the said Society,      mis-utilisation of  its funds  and their  diversion  to      other purposes." 819 On the basis of para 6 of the preamble it is argued that the grounds A  given  were  non-existant  at  the  time  of  the impugned ordinance  or the enactment and, therefore, the law

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made on that basis itself is bad.      We are afraid the argument has no substance. Obviously, there were  serious irregularities  in the management of the said Society  as has been pointed out in the earlier part of the judgment.  There has  been mis-utilisation  of funds and their diversion  to other purposes. This is evident from the audit report.  There was no material change in the situation on the date of the impugned ordinance or the Act, rather the situation had  grown  from  bad  to  worse  and  the  sordid situation prevailing  in the Auroville so pointed out by the parties fully  justified the  promulgation of  the ordinance and the  passing of  the enactment.  Of course,  each  party tried to  apportion the  blame on  the other.  Whosoever  be responsible, the  fact remains that the prevailing situation in the  Auroville was  far  from  satisfactory.  The  amount donated  for  the  construction  of  the  cultural  township Auroville and  other institutions  was to  the tune of Rs. 3 crores. It  was the  responsibility of the Government to see that the  amount was not mis-utilised and the management was properly carried out. So, the basis of the argument that the facts as  pointed out  in the  preamble were  non est is not correct.      Mr Venugopal  tried  to  explain  the  various  adverse remarks made  by the  auditors. On  a perusal  of the  audit report, which is a voluminous one, all we can say is that on the facts found by the audit committee, the report is rather a mild  one. There seems to be serious irregularities in the accounts. A  substantial amount received by way of donations had not been properly spent, there being mis-utilisation and diversion of the funds.      The Attorney-General  appearing for  the Union of India contended that  even assuming  for the sake of argument, but not conceding  that the  facts brought  to the notice of the legislature were  wrong, it will not be open to the Court to hold the Act to be bad on that account.      We find  considerable force  in  this  contention.  The Court would not do so even in case of a litigation which has become final  on the  ground that  the facts or the evidence produced in the case were not correct. The Parliament had to apply its mind on the facts before it. 820      The Attorney-General  also raised a sort of preliminary objection on  behalf of  the Union of India, that in view of Art. 31A  the petitioners could not challenge the Act on the ground of  contravention of  Art. 14 of the Constitution. In so far as it is material for the purposes of this case, Art. 31A reads:           "31A. (I)  Notwithstanding anything  contained  in      article l 3, no law providing for-      (a) .... ......................................      (b)   the taking over of the management of any property           by the  State for  a limited  period either in the           public interest  or in  order to assure the proper           management of the property,      (c) ............................................      (d) ............................................      (e) ...........................................      shall be  deemed to  be void  on the  ground that it is      inconsiststent with,  or takes  away or abridges any of      the rights conferred by article 14 or article 19." We find  this  argument  to  be  plausible  but  instead  of expressing any  concluded opinion on this point we preferred to deal with the various contentions raised by Mr. Venugopal on Art.  14 of the Constitution in view of the importance of the question involved in this case.

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    A  subsidiary   point  was  further  submitted  by  Mr. Venugopal that  no qualifications  have been prescribed and, therefore any person could be appointed as an Administrator. We can  normally assume  that the Government would certainly appoint a  responsible person as an administrator especially when there is a heavy stake in which the Government of India is  also  involved  inasmuch  as  at  the  instance  of  the Government  the   UNESCO  gave   financial  support  to  the institution.      It  was  further  submitted  that  the  report  of  the Committee was  a tainted  one as  the Chairman, Kulkarni and the Secretary  were parties. There is no foundation for this submission. 821      We, therefore,  hold that the impugned ordinance or the impugned  Act   is  not  violative  of  Article  14  of  the Constitution.      Now we  turn to  the last  but not  the least important ground of  mala fides. The Act is sought to be challenged on the ground  that it  is mala  fide. This  argument is on the basis that  Kirit Joshi, who had his own axe to grind in the matter, was  instrumental in  getting the impugned ordinance and the  Act passed. This argument bas been advanced only to be rejected.  Allegations about  mala fides  are more easily made than  made out.  It will  be too  much to  contend that Kirit Joshi,  who was  only an  Educational Adviser  to  the Government of  India,  Ministry  of  Education  and  Culture (Department of  Education), was responsible for the impugned enactment. The  impugned enactment  was passed following the due procedure  and merely  because he made a complaint about the situation  prevailing in the management of Auroville and the Society,  it cannot  be said that the impugned enactment was passed at his behest.      For the reasons given above all the writ petitions must fail. In  view of  the final  decision on the writ petitions themselves, it  is not  necessary to pass any specific order in the  appeal filed against the interim order in one of the writ petitions. The parties in the circumstances of the case are left to bear their own costs. S. R.                                   Petitions dismissed. 822