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PETITIONER: SHRI A.S. NARAYANA DEEKSHITULU

       Vs.

RESPONDENT: STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH & ORS.

DATE OF JUDGMENT:       19/03/1996

BENCH: RAMASWAMY, K. BENCH: RAMASWAMY, K. HANSARIA B.L. (J)

CITATION:  1996 AIR 1765            JT 1996 (3)   482  1996 SCALE  (2)911

ACT:

HEADNOTE:

JUDGMENT:                             WITH  WRIT PETITION NOs. 1063, 1090, 1374 OF 1987 AND 173/90 AND  TRANSFER CASE NOS.168/88, 170-76/88, 2/90, 37 & 38/90 3/93                           AND 4/93                       J U D G M E N T K. RAMASWAMY, J.      This and  connected writ  petitions and  transfer cases concern the  constitutionality of Sections 34, 35, 37,39 and 144 of  the Andhra  Pradesh Charitable  and Hindu  Religious Institutions and  Endowments  Act  (for  short,  the  ‘Act’) abolishing  hereditary   rights  of   archaka,   mirasidars, gamekars  and   other  office-holders   and  servants   like hereditary  Karnam  of  Dwarka  Thirumalai  Temple  in  West Godavari District.  The facts in Writ Petition No.638/87 are sufficient for  consideration of  questions raised  in  this batch of cases.      The petitioner is one of the Chief Priests (archaka) in an ancient  and renowned Hindu temple at Thirumala Tirupathi known in  entire south-Asia  and abroad as venkateswaraswamy temple and  in north-India  as Balaji temple in whose praise saint Annamacharya  spent his  life  in  singing  devotional songs -  a practice devolved by custom and usage from over a century. According  to the petitioner, the office of archaka is  succeeded   from  forefathers  in  accordance  with  the Vaikhanasa Agama  Shastre rules  which govern  the temple on the principles  of "heirs  in line of succession" among four families,  viz.,   Paidapally  family,   Gollapalli  family, Pethainti  family   and  Thirupathanna   Garu  family.   The petitioner belongs  to the  Paidapally family.  According to the  petitioner,   being  Hindu   vaishnavas,  they   render Archaktwam service  in the  holy temple of Lord Venkateswara situated on the top of seven hills or Saptagiri, Thirumalai. The temple  is presided over by Lord Venkateswaraswamy known by different names.      Religion is inspired by ceaseless quest for truth which

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has many  facets to release and free the soul from ceaseless cycle of birth and death to attain salvation. Hindus believe that worship consists of four forms of which idol worship is one such  form. Mode  of worship  varies  among  persons  of different faiths.  It is  an assimilation  of the individual soul with the infinite. For its attainment diverse views and theories have  been propounded  and  one  of  them  is  idol worship.  Hindu   creed  believes  that  the  Supreme  Being manifests Himself with three aspects as Brahma, the Creator, Vishnu,  the   Preserver  and   Shive,  the   Destroyer  and Renovator.  Those who believe and are devoted to the worship of Vishnu  are known  as Vaishnavas  and those  who  worship Shiva are called Saivites.      Vaishnavas believe  that God  had manifested Himself in different incarnations.  In other words, manifesting Himself into flesh  and  the  very  contrary  of  avatare  which  is expressive, absolute  and immaculate.   The  finite forms of His avatara  are hot  forms  of  material  impurity  but  of imperium  purity,  the  purity  of  Suddhasattva.  Vaishnava believes in  Deity Vishnu  who has  manifested Himself in 10 avataras. Lord Vishnu descends in one avatrara ‘Archavatar’. It is a Deity in the form of idols in the temple.      The institution  of temple should be in conformity with the  Agamas  co-existing  with  the  institution  of  temple worship. Construction  of  temple  and  the  institution  of archakas simultaneously came into existence. The temples are constructed according  to the  Agama Shastra.  In accordance with the Agama Shastra, archaka as professional man, attends on idols.  He is  associated with  existence of  temple over centuries as  part of  its establishment.  The authority  of Agama is  judicially recognized  in  several  precedents  of various courts  including this Court. Agamas are treaties of ceremonial law  dealing with matters such as construction of temples,  installation   of  idols  therein  and  conducting worship of the Deity. 28 Agamas relate to the Shiva temples. The Agamas  of Vaishnavas  are Pancharatra Agamas containing elaborate  rules   regulating  how   the  temple  should  be constructed,  whereat   the  principal   Deity  is   to   be consecrated, where  the other  Devatas  (idols)  are  to  be installed and  place  where  worshippers  should  stand  and worship   the   Deity   Though   Agamas   prescribed   class discriminatory placement  for worship  in  the  temples,  it became obsolete  after the  advent of  the  Constitution  if India which,  by  Articles  14,  15,  17,  21,  25  and  26, prohibits discrimination  on grounds  only of  caste, class, sect etc.      The consecration  of idol  should be done by the priest according to  elaborate and  complicated rituals accompanied by chanting  of mantras  and devotional songs appropriate to the Deity.  Hindu worshippers believe that the divine spirit has descended  in the  Deity’s images  and if  efficacy  and power of  the Lord are transmitted into the Deity, the image of the  Deity becomes  fit to  be worshiped. Rules have been provided to conduct periodical or daily worship for securing continuance of  the divine spirit in the image. According to Marishi Maharishi  in his  discourse to his disciple on need for worship for salvation had ordained that worship of Deity in the  temple will  bring all  the benefits. The purpose of the temple  is to  provide opportunity for public worship of the Deity.  When congregation  of worshippers participate in the worship, a particular attitude of separation of devotion gets developed and confers great spiritual benefit.      The  priest   preserves  the   image  from   pollution, defilement or  desecration. By performing rituals, rites and reciting hymns  he  makes  Lord  present  in  definable  and

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describable way  and Vishnu  manifests in  the hearts of the devotees. It  is the  religious belief  of Hindu worshippers that when  the image  is polluted  or  defiled,  the  divine spirit  in   the  image  is  diminished  or  even  vanished. According to  the Agamas,  an image becomes defiled if there is any  departure or  violation of any of the rules relating to worship.  It  would  then  become  necessary  to  perform purificatory ceremonies  to  restore  the  sanctity  of  the shrine. The  performance of  rituals thus plays a great role to sustain  the faith of the layman in the Deity. Therefore, the Agama  rules are  part of  Hindu  religious  faith.  Any departure from the traditional rules of worship would result in pollution.      Only qualified  archaka is  entitled to step inside the sanctum  sanctorum   (Garbhagriha)  after   observing  daily discipline imposed  upon him  by the  Agamas. It is his sole duty to  perform daily  rituals and  ceremonies according to Agama prescriptions  touching the  Deity. Touch of the image of the  Deity by  any other  person would  defile the  idol. Therefore, the  Agama assigns that duty to the archaka alone as part of religious practice. He performs Archana and other services on  behalf of  the "Severities" or worshippers. The services  of   archaka,  therefore,   are   integrally   and inseparably connected  with the performance of daily rituals in pooja (worship) to the Deity.      Consequently, devotees of the respective Vaishnavite or Saivite temples  alone are  entitled to  be archakas  in the respective temples.  In  a  Saivite  temple,  a  Vaishnavite cannot be  an archaka and vice versa, though there is no bar for them  worshipping either  Deity  as  a  lay  worshipper. Therefore, any other archaka is not competent to do pooja in Vaishnavite temple  according to  Vaikhanasa Agama  Shastra. This is the general rule applicable to all the temples. Even among vaishnavitas  there  is  further  distinction  between pancharatra and  vaikhanasa system  of performing  rites. It is, therefore, clear that archaka of a temple, besides being proficient in  the rituals appropriate to the worship of the particular Deity  according to Agamas, must also belong to a particular  denomination.   Thereby,  archaka   occupies  an important place in religious part of temple worship.      Unlike other temples, Thirumalai Lord Venketeswaraswamy temple has  peculiar features  of its  own, namely,  certain special ceremonies and rites distinct for this temple should be done strictly, as mandated by the Vedas and Agamas by the archakas who  profess and  practise  Vaikhanasa  Agamas  and succeed to  the  office  of  archaka  hereditarily  and  are governed by  the Vaikhanasa  Agama and  are  of  Vaishnavite faith. The  principle of  heredity thereby  became  part  of usage.      The management  of the  temple prior  to the  statutory intervention  was   in  the  hands  of  Dharmakartas  (Pedda Jeengar). Equally,  there classes  of  persons  like  Chinna Jeengar, Acharya,  Purrushas and  Gamekars were in charge of making prasadams,  like  Laddu  and  doing  other  forms  of services  like   maintenance  of   the  temple  by  shepherd community and  other local  communities,  are  part  of  the hereditary system.      All of  them are  given certain rights known as "Mirasi rights". they  earn their  livelihood through  these  mirasi rights  which   include  lands   given  by  the  temple  for performance of services. Besides, archkas have shares out of the offerings made to the temple, while persons in charge of preparing prasadams  will get percentage of share out of the sale  of   prasadams.  All  persons  in  charge  of  various activities of  the temple succeed hereditarily. The right of

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management was  acquired by  birth and  every person born in the respective  classes  is  entitled  to  a  share  in  the perquisites incidental  to management. The temple is managed by these  persons by  turns among  them.  Dharamkarthas  and archakas had framed rules for management of the temple. Even after the  statutory take-over  of  the  management  by  the Endowment  Department   or  Government,   custody   of   the properties, particularly  jewels, remained with archakas and the custody  changed hands to each family according to turns from time  to time.  Head priest remained in charge of doing pooja for  a particular  period; when  his  family  got  the charge once  in four  years or  eight years,  he would be in charge of  all the  valuables.  Thought  the  value  of  the jewellery and  other valuables  of the temple was of several crores, there  was never any complaint of any sort regarding their custody  and management  of the  jewellery  and  other valuables. All  the functions done by archakas constitute an integral and  inseparable part  of  the  management  of  the temples and  religious ritual practices and usages. Even the food offerings  and preparation  of Prasadams, i.e., Dittam, are part of the religious practice evolved in the temple and are to  be prepared  by persons  well versed  in  the  Agama Shastras.      The  State  Government  had  constituted  a  commission headed by  Justice Challa  Kondaiah, former Chief Justice of Andhra Pradesh,  as its  Chairman; the  composition  thereof changed and  ultimately a three-member Commission consisting of  the   Chairman,  Dr.  C.  Annarao,  former  Chairman  of Thirumala Tirupathi  Devasthanams (for short, the ‘TTD’) for a  decade  having  first-hand  personal  experience  in  the working of  the system  and management of TTD; and Shri A.V. Suryarao,  an  advocate,  Joint  Commissioner  of  Endowment Department having expert knowledge in working out the Madras Act Telangana  Act and  the Andhra  Pradesh  Charitable  and Hindu Religious  Institutions and  Endowments Act, 1966 [for short, ‘predecessor  Act 17  of  1966]  and  known  for  his devoted service, as Member Secretary, came in existence. The Commission submitted  its report  in three  printed  volumes which have  been placed  before us and copiously relied upon and referred  to. It had recommended abolition of hereditary archakatwam service  and trusteeship  etc. On its basis, the Act was  made, which has come into force w.e.f. May 23, 1987 after it  received  Presidential  assent.  It  repealed  its predecessor Act 17 of 1966.      Shri  K.   Parasaran,  learned   senior  counsel,   who addressed leading  arguments on behalf of the petitioner and which were  adopted by other learned counsel, contended that abolition of  hereditary rights  created by  the founders in rendering  services  to  the  temples  by  archaka  etc.  in charitable or  religious institutions  and endowments  is an interference with  religious practices and customs which are part of  religion. The  Act should  not look  at archakas or other office-holders in isolation; they should be considered in its  pragmatic whole whose impact would be to destroy the concept and  content of  Hindu religious  belief itself. The scheme of  the Act  as such is an unwarranted and outrageous interference with  the religion,  that is to say, it aims to abolish all existing religious offices, religious usages and practices and  confers on  the secular State power to decide as to  who should  be appointed  as archaka,  mirasidar  and other office-holders  destroying the existing customs, usage and traditions which are integral part of religion. Articles 25 and  26 of  the Constitution deal with guarantee not only of matters of doctrine and beliefs but also the practices of it, to  be ascertained  with reference  to  the  tenets  and

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doctrine of  the religion  itself as  is evidenced by custom and usage.  Where the  religious affairs  and ceremonies are carried on  in accordance  with a  particular Agama Shastra, deviation therefrom is impermissible. The archaka is part of the  temple  worship  and  the  rights  of  an  archaka  are succeeded by heredity from generation to generation treating him as  an original Acharya. As followed in Vaikhanasa Agama the daily  rites, rituals  and ceremonies  performed by them extend to  daily worship,  offerings of food and performance of special ceremonies in a particular way with all piety and devotion as integral part of religion.      Archakatwam service  would thus  form part of religious service integrally  connected with  the religion. Therefore, Sections 16, 34 to 37, 39 and 144 of the Act are ultra vires Articles 25(1)  and 26(b)  of the  Constitution. They do not relate to public order, morality, health or matters relating to  economic,   financial,  political   or   other   secular activities associated  with religious  practices nor do they relate to  social welfare or reform. Therefore, they are not saved either by Article 25(2) or 26 of the Constitution.      The emoluments attached to the office are for discharge of daily  obligations by an archaka and the right to a share in the  collections is  beneficial interest  attached to the office. The  deprivation  thereof  denudes  the  archaka  or office-holders of  the means  to discharge  the  duties  and would  destroy   the  character   of  worship   itself.  The reimbursement by  way of  payment of salary is calculated to make archaka  unfit to  discharge his  duties,  integral  to worship. The  restriction imposed  are offensive  of Article 25(1) and  being arbitrary,  unjust and unfair, violative of Article 14.  Making the  archaka a  servant under  the State Department is  contrary to  the code of conduct laid down by Agamas  for  an  archaka,  an  integral  part  of  religious practice. Therefore,  it cannot  be a  subject matter of any legislation.  Even  if  a  legislation  comes  under  social welfare, public  order, morality  or  health  or  any  other field,  it  can  only  regulate  and  restrict  the  secular activity but  cannot altogether  alter or abolish or totally change the  system which had formed an essential part of the religion. Therefore,  the law  taking  away  the  hereditary right from the petitioners offends Articles 25(1) and 26.      The Commissioner  who is a bureaucrat has no competence or qualifications to judge or test the qualifications, merit or work  of an  archaka who learns the Agama Sutras by heart from child-hood.  Being born  in the hereditary family, they would learn  recitation of slokas and mode of performance of worship as  per Agama.  The Commissioner  cannot regulate by law nor  has he  competence to  test  his  qualification  or suitability for appointment. Therefore, though being secular act, hereditary  right of  an archaka may be abolished since qualification for  appointment flows  from the  Agamic rule, only descendants  of  particular  family  are  competent  to conduct worship and they alone have the right to appointment and they  cannot be  tested  nor  can  their  competence  be determined by the Commissioner.      Public interest  requires that rites or rituals must be performed by  an archaka and public duty towards the general worshippers demands that archaka who is interested in ritual form of  worship would  alone be  appointed as  priest. They would be  available only  in the  families of  archakas from generation to  generation. Payment of share in the offerings is part  of religious  practice and  usage. No  question  of money consideration  or emoluments  in that  behalf for  the performance of  his duties, would arise. Archaka is entitled to the  share in  Parsadams, laddus  and collections  in the

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prescribed manner  as part  of religious customs and usages. The scheme  under the  Act and rules are wholly misconceived and repugnant to the established religious practice.      There is nothing in the Act to show that it was enacted in the  interest of public order, morality and health, which alone are  relevant factors  to restrict freedom of religion or religious  practices guaranteed  by Article  25(1) of the Constitution. The  State cannot, under the pretext of making secular law,  regulate  or  restrict  activities  which  are integrally associated with religious purposes.      Vaishnava archaka  cannot be  transferred to and posted even in  another similar Vaishnava temple situated elsewhere as no two temples perform same ceremonies and rituals in the same  order.  The  Pedda  Jeengar  and  Chinna  Jeengar  are religious  heads   and  importance   of  their   office  was judicially recognized by the Privy Council. Therefore, their offices are  hereditary and  cannot be  abolished under  the Act. A  Brahmachari cannot  be appointed as an archaka which is antithesis to the Agama Shastra. He cited the instance of performance of  rituals by  hereditary archakas in Padmawati and Lord  Venkateswaraswamy  temples.  He  place  voluminous evidence of prevalence of the hereditary system in different States and  those Acts did not abolish the system. He placed strong reliance  on the  decision of this Court in Seshammal and Ors.  etc. etc.  vs. State  of Tamil  Nadu [(1972) 3 DCR 815], apart  from the  leading judgment  in The Commissioner Hindu  Religious  Endowments,  Madras  vs.  Sri  Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Sri Shirur Math [(1954) SCR 1005].      Shri P.  P. Rao,  learned senior counsel for the State, contended that  the Act  made a  clear  distinction  between matters of  religion and  religious  practices  and  secular activities  of   a  religious   institution  or  endowments. Sections 13,  23 and  142 of  the Act  have  taken  care  to preserve all  the existing  religious usages,  practices and sampradayams as  valid. Apart  from preserving them, the Act mandates the officers not to violate their practice. The Act seeks to regulate only the administration and maintenance of secular part  of the  religious institutions  or endowments. The Act  does not  affect any  honour to  which  any  person including archaka  or Jeengars  are entitled  by custom. The Act does not interfere with the performance of any religious worship or  ceremony, nor  does it  object to  any religious institution’s functioning  according to the Sampradayams and Agamas followed by them.      Article  25(2)   permits  regulation   of  any  secular activity associated with the religious practice. Appointment of an  archaka is a secular activity. Archakas, Jeengars and others are  employees of  TTD. Though the Pedda Jeengars and Chinna Jeengars have the status of Mathadhipathi in relation to their Math, in relation to TTD, their status is only that of employees. The Commission had gone into these aspects and recommended for  their abolition.  There had been compromise with the  TTD by  hereditary archakas  and mirasidars on May 30, 1979  to receive emoluments at certain rates which would establish that  sharing of food offerings and laddus etc. is not part  of religious  practice. The  archakas and gamekars have not  been rendering  any service  personally  but  only through their  deputies working  for and  on behalf  of head priests for  consideration. The  hereditary  nature  of  the right,  therefore,   became  irrelevant.   Vaikhanasa  Agama nowhere mandates  that the  members of the families referred to in  the writ  petition alone  are entitled to perform the service, though  they belong  to  Vaikhanasa  sect  and  are Srivaishnavites.  Hereditary   right   which   governs   the appointment of  archaka is  a secular  usage which  could be

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regulated by  law.  The  mere  fact  that  in  some  temples elsewhere, the  hereditary principle is being followed would not denude  the power  of the  legislature to  enact the Act abolishing  hereditary   rights  and   emoluments   attached thereto.      As  a   corollary  to  the  abolition,  legislature  is competent  to  prescribe  qualifications  for  archakas  (in Section 36)  supplemented by  the rules made in that behalf. The Commissioner  of Endowment Department, with the guidance and  assistance   of  scholars  in  the  Agamas,  discharges statutory functions.  Training in those subjects as provided in the  rules  and  recommended  by  scholars  in  Vedas  is imparted in  schools established  in three places in Andhra, Rayalseema and Telengana regions; examinations are conducted as per  questions set  out by the scholars in the respective subjects  and   assessed  by   them.  So,   the   prescribed qualifications are valid qualifications for appointment. The rules laid  down only  a preferential  claim for Brahmachari while all  others are  treated alike in adjudging the claims of all qualified archakas. The power to transfer archakas is regulated by Section 39. It must be read in the light of the guidance found  in Sections  13 and 142. Therefore, archakas who are  competent and  well-versed in rituals, rites, pooja as  per  existing  religious  usages  and  customs  of  that particular institution alone would be transferred. Rule 7 of the Rules  made in  the predecessor  Act 17  of 1966 in this behalf  expressly   preserved   and   regulated   the   said safeguards. They  would continue to be in force by operation of Section  155(2) of  the Act,  till new  rules are made in that perspective. Since customary emoluments attached to the service  have  been  abolished,  regular  salary  and  other allowances are admissible to them.      Independently, the  archakas are  entitled to  what has been offered actually to the Deity and not to the Prasadams. Section 144  abolishes only  shares in hundi collections and other rusums but not Nitya Naivadyam, i.e., cooked rice etc. offered to  the Deity as per Dittam. Section 144 was enacted keeping in  view the  provision of  payment of salary to the archakas and  other servants. The provisions, therefore, are not violative either of Article 25 or 26.      With a  view to  appreciate the respective contentions, it is  necessary to understand the scope, content and effect of the  impugned provisions of the Act. Section 2(3) defines "charitable    endowment",    Section    2(4)    "charitable institution" and "charitable purpose" has been defined under Section 2(5).  Section  2(15)  defines  "hereditary  office- holders". "Religious  institution" has  been  defined  under Section 2(23),  "Temple" under  Section 2(27) and "Thirumala Tirupathi Devasthanams"  under  section  2(28).  Section  34 abolishes hereditary  rights  in  mirasidars,  archakas  and other office-holders and servants and reads thus :      "34.   (1)    (a)   Abolition    of      hereditary  rights  in  Mirasidars,      archakas, and  other office-holders      and servants:-      (1)(a) Notwithstanding  anything in      any compromise or agreement entered      into or  scheme framed  or sanad or      grant made  or judgment,  decree or      order     passed  by   any   Court,      Tribunal or other authorities prior      to the commencement of this Act and      in force  on such commencement, all      rights,    whether,     hereditary,      contractual  or   otherwise  of   a

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    person holding  any office  of  the      Pedda Jeeyanagar. Chinna Jeeyangar,      a Mirasidra or an archaka or Pujari      or any  other office  or service or      post by  whatever name it is called      in  any  religious  institution  or      endowment shall on the commencement      of this Act stand abolished.      (b)  Any usage or practice relating      to the  succession to any office or      service or post mentioned in clause      (a) shall be void;      (c)  All rights  and emoluments  of      any nature  in cash or kind or both      accrued to  an appertaining  to any      office or service or post mentioned      in clause (a) and subsisting on the      date of  commencement of  this  Act      shall on  such  commencement  stand      extinguished.      (2)  Every    office-holder     and      servant mentioned  in clause (a) of      sub-section (1)  holding office  as      such on the date of commencement of      this Act shall, notwithstanding the      abolition of the hereditary rights,      continue to  hold  such  office  or      post  on   payment  of   only  such      emoluments  and   subject  to  such      conditions of  service referred  to      in  sub-section   (3)  and  (4)  to      Section 35." Section 35, consequently, provides procedure for appointment of office-holders and servant etc. and Section 36 prescribes qualifications  for   archakas.  Section   37   deals   with discipline among  them and prescribes disciplinary procedure for the  office-holders and servants. Section 38 gives power to the  Commissioner etc.  in certain  cases and  Section 39 regulates transfer  of office-holders  and servants. Section 40  directs   office-holders  or   servants  not  to  be  in possession of  jewels etc. except under conditions mentioned thereunder. Section  144 abolishes  shares  in  hundies  and other rusums which reads thus :      "144. Abolition  of shares in Hundi      and other  rusums:- Notwithstanding      any judgment,  decree or  order  of      any  Court,   Tribunal   or   other      authority or  any  scheme,  custom,      usage  or   agreement,  or  in  any      manual prepared  by any institution      or in  any Farmana  or Sanad or any      deed or  order of the Government to      the    contrary    governing    any      charitable or religious institution      or endowment,  all shares which are      payable or  being paid  or given or      allowed at the commencement of this      Act to  any Trustee,  Dharmakartha,      Mutawalli,  any   office-holder  or      servant  including   all  offerings      made in  the premises of the Temple      or  at   such  places   as  may  be      specified  by   the  Trustee,   all      Prasadams  and   Panyarams  offered      either by  the Temple  or  devotee,

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    and such  other kinds of offerings,      all shares  in  the  lands  of  the      institution or  endowment  allotted      or allowed  to be in possession and      enjoyment of  any archaka,  office-      holder    or     servant    towards      remuneration   or   otherwise   for      rendering service and for defraying      the ‘Paditharam’ and other expenses      connected  with   the  service   or      management  of  the  temple,  shall      stand abolished  with effect on and      from the commencement of this Act." Chapter XIV  deals with  application of the Act to Thirumala Tirupathi Devasthanams,  constitution of  Board, powers  and functions of  the Board  of Trustees  etc., making the Act a complete code  as regards  the management and maintenance of the institutions or endowments belonging to Deity.      The concept  of  Hindu  religious  faith  and  practice referred to  in the  judgments in the narration of the facts needs preface  with inner  depth of  religion as revealed by (1) Swami  Vivekananda’s scholastic  concepts  in  his  "The Complete Works",  Vol I, at page 124; and (2) broad spectrum of self-realizations by Sri Aurobindo. Swami Vivekananda had stated that:      "Each soul  is potentially  divine.      The  goal   is  to   manifest  this      divinity  within   by   controlling      nature, external  and internal.  Do      this either by work, or worship, or      psychic control,  or philosophy- by      one, or  more, or all of these- and      be  free.  This  is  the  whole  of      religion. Doctrines,  or dogmas, or      rituals, or  books, or  temples, or      forms, are but secondary details.           Religion is  based upon  faith      and belief,  and,  in  most  cases,      consists only  of different sets of      theories, and  that is  the  reason      why there is difference in form." Thereafter, at page 341 he had stated that:      "Get rid,  in the  first place,  of      all these  limited ideas of God and      see him  in every  person - working      through all  hands, walking through      all feet,  and eating through every      mouth. He  lives, through all minds      of  his   thinking.  He   is  self-      evident,  nearer   unto   us   than      ourselves.   To    know   this   is      religion,  is  faith,  and  may  it      please the  Lord to  give  us  this      faith." Shri  Aurobindo,   one  of   the  illustrious  revolutionary patriots and  philosophers of  Bharat,  in  his  "The  Human Cycle, the  Ideal of Human Unity Way and Self-Determination" had on Chapter XVII ‘Religion as the Law of Life’ elucidated its real content and purpose thus:      "The absolute and transcendent, the      universal, the  One is  the  secret      summit of  existence and  to  reach      the spiritual consciousness and the      Divine the ultimate goal and aim of      our  being  and  therefore  of  the

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    whole development of the individual      and the  collectivity  in  all  its      activities, reason  cannot  be  the      last and  highest guide; culture as      it is understood ordinarily, cannot      be the  directing light or find out      the  regulating   and   harmonizing      principle  of   all  our  life  and      action.  For   religion   is   that      instinct,      idea,      activity,      discipline  in   man   which   aims      directly at  the Divine,  while all      the rest  seem to  aim at  it  only      indirectly  and   reach   it   with      difficulty after much wandering and      stumbling in  the  pursuit  of  the      outward and  imperfect  appearances      of things.  The whole  root of  the      historic insufficiency  of religion      as a  guide and  control  of  human      society  lies   in   confusion   of      religion with liberty, creed, sect,      cult, religious society are such." At page 166 he elaborated that:      "It  is   true  in   a  sense  that      religion should  be dominant  thing      in life,  its light  and  law,  but      religion as  it should be and is in      its inner  nature, its  fundamental      law of  being, a seeking after God,      the  cult   of  spirituality,   the      opening of  the deepest life of the      should to  the indwelling  Godhead,      the eternal  Omnipresence.  On  the      other  hand,   it  is   true   that      religion when  it identifies itself      only  with   a  creed,  a  cult,  a      Church,  a   system  of  ceremonial      forms, may  well become a retarding      force and there may therefore arise      a necessity for the human spirit to      reject its control vower the varied      activities of  life. There  are two      aspects of  religion, true religion      and religionism.  True religion  is      spiritual  religion,   that   which      seeks to  live in  the  spirit,  in      what  is   beyond  the   intellect,      beyond the  aesthetic  and  ethical      and practical  being of man, and to      inform and  govern these members of      our being  by the  higher light and      law of  the spirit. Religionism, on      the contrary,  entrenches itself in      some narrow pietistic exaltation of      the  lower      members   or   lays      exclusive  stress  on  intellectual      dogmas, forms  and  ceremonies,  on      some fixed and rigid moral code, on      some religio-political  or religio-      social  system.   Not  that   these      things are altogether negligible or      that  they   must  be  unworthy  or      unnecessary  or  that  a  spiritual      religion need  disdain the  aid  of

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    forms,   ceremonies,    creeds   or      systems. On  the contrary, they are      needed by  man  because  the  lower      members  have  to  be  exalted  and      raised before  they  can  be  fully      spiritualized,  before   they   can      directly feel  the spirit  and obey      its law."                      (Emphasis supplied) At pages 168-69 he added that:      "Only by the light and power of the      highest can  the lower be perfectly      guided, uplifted  and accomplished.      The lower  life of  man is  in form      undivided, though  in it  there  is      the secret  of the  divine, and  it      can only  be divinished  by finding      the higher  law and  the  spiritual      illumination....................The      spiritual man  who can  guide human      life  towards   its  perfection  is      typified in the ancient Indian idea      of the  Rishi, one  who  has  lived      fully the life of man and found the      word  of   the  supra-intellectual,      supra-mental, spiritual truth.: In Chapter XXXIV at pages 541-42, he opined that:      "Humanitarianism has  been its most      prominent     emotional     result.      Philanthropy,  social  service  and      other kindred  activities have been      its  outward   expression  of  good      works.    Democracy,     socialism,      pacificism are  to a  great  extent      its by-products  or  at  least  owe      much of  their vigour  to its inner      presence.           The fundamental  idea is  that      mankind  is   the  godhead   to  be      worshiped and  served  by  man  and      that the  respect, the service, the      progress of  the  human  being  and      human life  are the  chief duty and      chief aim  of the  human spirit. No      other idol, neither the nation, the      State, the family nor anything else      ought to  take its  place; they are      only worthy  of respect  so far  as      they are images of the human spirit      and enshrine  its presence  and aid      its self-manifestation.  But  where      the cult  of these  idols seeks  to      usurp the  place of  the spirit and      makes demands inconsistent with its      service, they  should be put aside.      No  injunctions   of  old   creeds,      religious,  political,   social  or      cultural, are  valid when  they  go      against its claim." At page 543, he mentioned that:      "One has only to compare human life      and thought  and feeling  a century      or two ago with human life, thought      and feeling  in the  pre-war period      to see  how great an influence this

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    religion of  humanity has exercised      and how  fruitful  a  work  it  has      done. It  accomplished rapidly many      things  which   orthodox   religion      failed to  do effectively,  largely      because  it  acted  as  a  constant      intellectual and  critical solvent,      an unsparing assailant of the thing      that is and an unflinching champion      of the thing to be, faithful always      to  the   future,  while   orthodox      religion  allied  itself  with  the      powers of  the present, even of the      past, bound itself by its pact with      them and  could act only at best as      a moderating but not as a reforming      force. Moreover,  this religion has      faith in  humanity and  its earthly      future and  can therefore  aid  its      earthly   progress,    while    the      orthodox religions looked with eyes      of pious  sorrow and  gloom on  the      earthly life of man and were   very      ready to  bid him  bear  peacefully      and contentedly,  even  to  welcome      its      crudities,      cruelties,      oppressions,  tribulations   as   a      means for  learning  to  appreciate      and for earning the better life." At pages  546-47, he  concluded his  thoughts on brotherhood thus:      "Yet is brotherhood the real key to      the triple  gospel of  the idea  of      humanity. The  union of liberty and      equality can  only be  achieved  by      the power  of human brotherhood and      it cannot  be founded  on  anything      else. But  brotherhood exists  only      in the soul and by the soul; it can      exist by  nothing  else.  For  this      brotherhood is  not a matter either      of physical  kinship  or  of  vital      association  or   of   intellectual      agreement.  When  the  soul  claims      freedom, it  is the  freedom of its      self-development,     the     self-      development of the divine in man in      all  his   being.  When  it  claims      equality, what  it is  claiming  is      that freedom  equally for  all  and      the recognition  of the  same soul,      the  same   godhead  in  all  human      beings.   When   it   strives   for      brotherhood, it  is  founding  that      equal freedom  of  self-development      on a  common aim,  a common life, a      unity of  mind and  feeling founded      upon the  recognition of this inner      spiritual unity. These three things      are in fact the nature of the soul;      for freedom,  equality,  unity  are      the  eternal   attributes  of   the      Spirit.   It   is   the   practical      recognition of  this truth,  it  is      the awakening  of the  soul in  man

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    and the  attempt to get him to life      from his  soul and not from his ego      which  is   the  inner  meaning  of      religion, and  it is  that to which      the religion  of humanity also must      arrive before  it can fulfil itself      in the life of the race." At page 594, he stated as under:      "Later religions  gave a  name  and      some body  of form  and quality  to      the   one   unknown   Godhead   and      proclaimed an  ideal law which they      gave out as his word and scripture.      But the  dogmatism of a partial and      unlived knowledge  and the external      tendencies  of   the   human   mind      darkened   the   illuminations   of      religion  with  the  confusions  or      error  and   threw  over  its  face      strange masks of childish and cruel      superstitions.  Religion   too   by      putting God  far above  in  distant      heavens made man too much of a worm      of  the   earth,  little  and  vile      before  his  Creator  and  admitted      only by  a caprice of his favour to      a doubtful salvation in supar human      words. Modern  thought  seeking  to      make a clear riddance of these past      conceptions   had   to   substitute      something else  in its  place,  and      what it  saw and  put there was the      material  law  of  Nature  and  the      biological law  of  life  of  which      human reason was to be the faithful      exponent  and   human  science  the      productive utilizer  and profiteer.      But   to   apply   the   mechanical      blindness of  the rule  of physical      Nature  as   the  sole   guide   of      thinking and  seeing man  is to  go      against  the  diviner  law  of  his      being   and    maim   his    higher      potentiality.  Material  and  vital      Nature is  only a first form of our      being  and  to  overcome  and  rise      beyond  its  formula  is  the  very      sense of a human evolution. Another      and greater  Power than hers is the      master of  this effort,  and  human      reason or human science is not that      Godhead, but  can only  be at  best      one and  not the  greatest  of  its      ministers." Dr. S.  Radhakrishnan, the philosopher - President of India, had stated,  as quoted  by this Court in Shirur Math’s case, that religion  is a  specific attitude  of self,  itself  no other, though  it is  mixed up  generally with  intellectual views, aesthetic  forms and  moral valuations.  Religion  is absolutely a matter of faith with individuals or communities and it is not necessarily theistic.      Taittiriya Upanishad  says in Brahmananda Valli, Serial No. 7,  that in  the beginning  all this  Universe was  Non- Existent and Un-manifest, from which this Manifest Existence was born  itself, none other created it. Therefore, they say

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that it  was well  and beautifully made. Shri Aurobindo says in his  magnum opus  Life  Divine:  World-existence  is  the ecstatic dance of Shiva which multiplies the body of the God numberlessly to  the view;  it leaves  that while  existence precisely where  and what was, ever is and ever will be; its sole absolute  subject is  the joy  of the  dancing. In  Rig Veda, the  Hymns of  Bharadwaja, spoke about universal Force that "The  heights of  heaven were measured into form by the eye of  this  universal  Force,  they  were  shaped  by  the intuition of the Immortal."      The world is the creation of the brhat conscient energy of the Supreme Spirit "apraketam salilam sarvam idam tapasas tan  mahina   ajayata  ekam".  (Out  of  all  the  ocean  of inconscience it  is that  one spiritual Existent who is born by the  greatness of  his own energy). Braht Vedic thinkers, like ancient Greeks, in their search for the first ground of all changing  things, looked  upon water,  air, fire etc. as the ultimate  elements out of which the variety of the world is composed.  In the  pluralistic stage  several  Gods  like Pavana, Indra,  Agni etc. were looked upon as the authors of universe.  In  monoistic  philosophy  there  exist  unsolved question whether God created world out of His own nature and its existence is an absolute reality which we cannot call it either as  existent or  non-existent.  For  to  Deussen  the central Uphanishadic  thought declares  that  the  world  in space and  time is an appearnce, an illusion, a show of God. To know  God, we  must reject  the world of appearance. What inclines Deussen  to this  view in  his own  belief that the essence of  every true  religion is  the repudiation  of the reality of  the world.  Having come  to that  conclusion  on independent grounds, he is anxious to find support, as Prof. S. Radhakrishnan argues, for his doctrine in the philosophic systems  of  ancient  India,  the  Upanishads  and  Sankara, ancient Greece,  Parmenides and  Plato, and  modern Germany, Kant and  Schopenhauer.  Shri  Aurobindo  conceived  of  the Absolute Reality,  as a triune principle thus: "The Absolute Reality  is   the   Satchidananda,   that   is,   Existence- Consciousness Force-Bliss.  The Absolute  as a Pure existent is no  doubt the  fundamental reality, but movement, energy, process is equally a reality".      The fundamental  desire of  man to  make peace with His inner-self and  bring to bear an experience of transmutation of the  current personality into a vibrant, center of energy of deep  fulfillment and  happiness. Article  25 [1]  of the Constitution guarantees  freedom of  conscience and right to freely profess,  practise and  propagate religion.  To  what extent inner  layers of  religion in  the Hindu  dharma  are protected by  Articles 25  and 26  is the core question from which a  deduction could be drawn whether the Act interferes with them violating Articles 25 [1] and 26.      The very  attempt  to  define  religion  to  find  some distinct or possible unique essence or set of qualities that distinguish religion  from the  remainder of  human life, is primarily  a   Western  speculative,  intellectualistic  and scientific disposition.  It  is  also  the  product  of  the dominant Western  religious  mode  or  custom  of  religious people. Even  the Western  thinkers recognize their cultural bias in  the concept  of  religious  assumptions  of  theism permeating their thought. Encyclopedia of Religion by Mircea Eliasde [Vol.12] states that religion is the organization of life around  the depth  dimensions of experience - varied in form, completeness,  and  clarity  in  accordance  with  the environing culture.  If religiousness  is a  depth-awareness coming to  distinctive  expression  in  the  forms  we  call religion, how  is religiousness  distinguished from  various

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other types  of awareness such as the aesthetic and ecstatic - what  Abraham Maslow  [1964] calls  "peak experiences" and Marghanita Laski  [1961] terms "non-religious ecstasy" - and the states  of "altered  consciousness" produced  by various psychosomatic techniques  or drugs?  On Hindu  religion,  at page 290  it is stated that "yet deep within ritualism there is inherent  the concern for accuracy and faithfulness. This is the  essentially sacramental nature of ritual that arises from its  nature as  an ordered  symbol  system.  Thus  both symbol and  ritual are perceived as intrinsic embodiments of the sacred  essence,  the  supersensible  and  indescribable ultimate of  a religion.  Thus ritual  and symbol  bring the real presence  of the  religious  depth-dimension  into  the lives of  its experiments  and in so doing become incredibly precious".      At page  292, it  is further  stated under  the caption "Religion  and   Modernity"  that   "the  question   whether religion, at  least, in  its traditional forms, will survive the ongoing  cultural  changes  of  modern  times  is  often discussed.   Certainly    many   traditional   and   current formulations, and  perhaps entire traditions, will radically change or  even disappear. Yet it also seems that as soon as one form  of religion  disappears, another rises to take its place". Without  asserting a  religious instinct in mankind, it may  perhaps be said that man is incessantly religious in one way  or another  and that  the human situation and human nature make  it inevitable  so. The  immense  mysteries  and uncertainties of  the world  and  man’s  own  inquiring  and evaluating self-consciousness make inevitable a reaching out for some  sort of  ultimate values  and realities - which is yet another name for the religious quest.      Religion is  thus eternal  and  in  development  is  in search of  God throughout  history, building  into a  fuller religious life.  The eternal religion remains unchanging but the form  and content keep changing with the change of times with the  experience of  the past  keeps to  preserve to the fullest religious  life. But  as Shri  Arobindo put  it  the religiousness of  man descends him into lower levels and due to confusion  predominance is  given to  forms like  rituals etc. So  John Macmurray  in "Reason  and Emotion" [Faber and Faber Publication] at page 40 states thus:      "...religion    is     also     the      consciousness of  life in God; that      which we  seek for  is  also  there      always eternally  in us. It is this      eternal aspect of religion which is      expressed    in    the    religious      recognition  of   equality  in  all      human life  at  any  stage  of  its      development; in  the knowledge that      all distinction  of superiority and      inferiority      are       relative      distinctions; and  that  ultimately      all  persons   and   all   personal      experience are of equal, because of      eternal or infinite, worth. Just so      in love  between two persons, if it      is a real love, there is a sense in      which  it  is  always  perfect  and      complete, and this, as we know very      well, is  not in contradiction with      the fact  of  development  in  that      love; it  is indeed,  the condition      of the development". Julian Huxley  in his "Evolution After Darwin" Vol. III page

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259 under  the subject  "The Evolutionary Vision" has stated thus:      "Once we truly believe...that man’s      destiny is to make possible greater      fulfillment for  more human  beings      and fuller  achievements  by  human      societies, utility in the customary      sense becomes subordinate. Quantity      of  material   production  is,   of      course, necessary  as the basis for      the  satisfaction   of   elementary      human  needs-but   only  up   to  a      certain degree. More than a certain      number of  calories of cocktails or      T.V. sets  or washing  machines per      person is  not merely  unnecessary,      but  bad   Quantity   of   material      production is  a means to a further      end, not an end in itself.’ The Upanishads  teach us  that India  has sought in religion not an  absolute or  finished dogma  to believe  in,  but  a method and means to pierce the veil that hides every present meaning and  mystery of existence. Robert Ernest Hume in his "the Thirteen  Principal Upanishads"  at  page  30  footnote states that  "the earnestness of the search for truth is one of  the   delightful  and   commendable  features   of   the Upanishads".      Swami Vivekananda  in  his  lecture  on  "Religion  and Science" incorporated in "The Complete Works" [Vol.VI, Sixth Edition] had stated at page 81 thus:      "Experience is  the only  source of      knowledge. In  the world,  religion      is the  only science where there is      no surety, because it is not taught      as a  science of  experience.  This      should not  be.  There  is  always,      however, a  small group  of men who      teach  religion   from  experience.      They are  called mystics, and these      mystics in every religion speak the      same  tongue  and  teach  the  same      truth. This  is the real science of      religion. As  mathematics in  every      part of  the world does not differ,      so the  mystics do not differ. They      are all  similarly constituted  and      similarly      situated.      Their      experience is  the same;  and  this      becomes law." In Volume II, Ninth Edn. at page 432, Swamiji said that :      "There   are    two   worlds:   the      microcosm and  the  macrocosm,  the      internal and  the external.  We get      truth from  both these  by means of      experience. The truth gathered from      internal experience  is psychology,      metaphysics  and   religion;   from      external experience,  the  physical      sciences.  Now   a  perfect   truth      should   be    in   harmony    with      experience in  both  these  worlds.      The microcosm  must bear  testimony      to the  macrocosm and the macrocosm      to the  microcosm;  physical  truth      must have  its counterpart  in  the

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    internal world,  and internal world      must    have    its    verification      outside;" Swami  Vivekananda   in  his  "The  Complete  Works"  Vol.1, Eleventh Edn. at page 366 said that:      "The  foundations   have  all  been      undermined;  and  the  modern  man,      whatever  he  may  say  in  public,      knows in  the privacy  of his heart      that  he  can  no  more  "believe",      believing because  it is written in      certain  books,  believing  because      people like  him  to  believe,  the      modern   man   knows   it   to   be      impossible for  him. There  are, of      course, a number of people who seem      to  acquiesce  in  the    so-called      popular faith  but we  also  think.      Their idea  of belief may be better      translated     as     "non-thinking      carelessness".  This  fight  cannot      last much  longer without  breaking      to  pieces  all  the  buildings  of      religion".      x     x      x      x      x      x      "Is religion  to justify  itself by      the discoveries  of reason, through      which every other science justified      itself? Are  the  same  methods  of      investigation, which  we  apply  to      sciences and  knowledge outside, to      be  applied   to  the   science  of      religion? In  my opinion  this must      be so,  and I  am also  of  opinion      that the  sooner  it  is  done  the      better. If  a religion is destroyed      by such  investigation, it was then      all  the   time  unless,   unworthy      superstition;  and  the  sooner  it      goes the  better. I  am  thoroughly      convinced  that   its   destruction      would be  the best thing that could      happen. All  that is  dross will be      taken  off,   no  doubt,   but  the      essential parts  of  religion  will      emerge  triumphant   out  of   this      investigation. Not  only will it be      made scientific-as  scientific,  at      least, as any of the conclusions of      physics or  chemistry-but will have      greater strength,  because  physics      or  chemistry   has  not   internal      mandate to  vouch  for  its  truth,      which religion has." Swami Vivekananda  in his  "The Complete  Works",  Vol.  VI, Sixth Edn. at page 81 said that:      "Religion deals  with the truths of      the  metaphysical   world  just  as      chemistry  and  the  other  natural      sciences deal with the truth of the      physical world.  The book  one must      read to learn chemistry is the book      of (external) nature. The book from      which to learn religion is your own      mind and  heart. The  sage is often

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    ignorant   of    physical   science      because he reads the wrong book-the      book within;  and the  scientist is      too  often   ignorant  of  religion      because he,  too, reads  the  wrong      book-the book without." Again in  his The Complete Works, (Vol.V, Eight Edn.), pages 192-93, he says that:      "The basis  of all  systems, social      or  political,   rests   upon   the      goodness of    men.  No  nation  is      greater or  good because Parliament      enacts this  or that,  but  because      its men  are great  and good.   ...      Religion goes  to the  root of  the      matter. If  it  is  right,  all  is      right   ...    One  must admit that      law,   government,   politics   are      phases not  final in any way. There      is a  goal beyond them where law is      not needed.....  All great  Masters      teach the  same thing.  Christ  saw      that the  basis is  not  law,  that      morality and  purity are  the  only      strength." From that  perspective, this  Court is  concerned  with  the concept of  Hindu religion  and dharma.  Very often  one can discern  and   sense  political  and  economic  motives  for maintaining  status  quo  in  relation  to  religious  forms masquerading it  as religious  faith and  rituals bereft  of substantial religious  experience. As  sure, philosophers do not regard  this as religion at all. They do not regard this as religion at all. They do not hesitate to say that this is politics or  economic masquerading  as a  religion.  A  very careful distinction,  therefore, is  required  to  be  drawn between real  and  unreal  religion  at  any  stage  in  the development and preservation of religion as protected by the Constitution. Within religion, there is an interpretation of reality  and   unreality  which   is  completely   different experience. It  is the  process in which ideal is made rule. Thus perfection  of religious experience can take place only when free  autonomy is afforded to an individual and worship of the  infinite is  made  simpler,  direct  communion,  the cornerstone of  human system.  Religion is  personal to  the individual. Greater the law bringing an individual closer to this freedom,  the higher  is its  laudable  and  idealistic purpose. Therefore,  in order  that religion  becomes mature internally with  the human  personality it is essential that mature self-enjoy must be combined with conscious knowledge. Religious  symbols  can  be  contra-distinguished  from  the scientific symbols  and both  are as  old  as  man  himself. Through  scientific  symbols  there  can  be  repetition  of dogmatism  and   conviction  of   ignorance.  True  religion reaching upto the full reality of all knowledge, believes in God as the unity of the whole.      According to  Hindu  belief,  Vishnu  as  preserver  is stated to  take five  forms, viz, Para, Vyuha, Vibhava, Arca and Antaryamin.  Para is  the transcendental  form.  Vibhava includes the  ten divine  descends [avatara] and also thirty nine forms which He takes from time to time. Arca represents God in  the form  of idol,  which He  though formless, takes this finite form to show favour to His devotees. The form of Antaryamin is  to remain  within the  self and control it by directing it  to lead  a virtuous way of life, in accordance with  the   residues  of  the  deeds  done  by  it.  Temple,

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therefore, forms  an integral part of Hindu religion and the idol installed  therein forms  the main  symbol of religious worship manifesting the dignity of God.      The purpose of religious experience, as stated earlier, is  to   integrate  human  life,  socially,  materially  and morally. It  must, therefore,  produce a  share of  material goods and  bear a pinnacle for human experience. The dualism of Spirit  and Matter,  should be kept clear. John Macmurray has stated in this behalf thus:      "Worship is  certainly specifically      religious, and it is an attitude of      mind which  is not  compatible with      science. Science  does not worship,      It    enquires,    and    analyses,      classifies and  does sums.  On  the      other hand,  religion is not merely      worship; and  worship may be merely      superstitious.   If   superstitious      worship is religion, then astrology      and   palmistry    are    sciences.      Religion cannot simply sit down and      worship anything and everything; it      must  claim  reality  for  what  it      worships; and  it  must  made  some      statement about  this  reality  and      assert not  merely that  it is true      but that  it is  supreme  truth.  A      religious    temper     which    is      indifferent    to     any    truth,      scientific or  otherwise,  it  ipso      facto, superstitious.  Religion  is      not merely  the worship of God, but      the knowledge  of God,  for  if  it      does not  known its God then God is      a figment of the imagination and it      worships it  knows  not  what.  All      honest     religion     necessarily      involves a strenuous effort to know      the  supreme   reality,   and   the      knowledge of  God must  involve all      knowledge in its scope."      (John Macmurray:  Reason & Emotion,      Faber & Faber).      The    ultimate    experience    of      religious     consciousness      is      described   beautifully   in   Audi      Shankara’s    Shri     Daksinamurti      Stotram  wherein   the  expression:      "Darpanadrisyamananagari" is  used.      The  expression   refers   to   the      teacher showing  a reflection  of a      city  as   seen  in  a  mirror.  In      Panchadasi, XIII  - 101,  the sloka      says:      Nishchhidra      Darpne       Bhati      Bastugarbham Brihat-jagat,  Satchit      Sukhe Tatha  Nana  jagadgarbhamidam      Biyat.      (In   a    flawless   mirror,   the      expansive space with all the things      in it,  is seen. Similarly, in this      mass of Existence and Consciousness      is seen  this space  comprising the      variegated universe.) Religious experience  is a general nature. All manifestation

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of religious  experience to whatever organized religion they belong are  ultimately co-experiences  by which  the mind is stilled,  purified,   the  prana  controlled  and  by  which "parmeshwarachaitanya" appears.  In manasollasa  (ix: 21-3-) it has been observed that :      Chitte   nishchaltan   yate   prano      bhawati    nishchallah    Chittshya      nishchal        twaya         yogam      sadhyamavyaset. The above  ‘shloka’ says  that the signs such as the control over the  five elements and the siddhi are indicative of the progress in  the path leading upto the various ways in which the bimbarupa, i.e., the parmesvara-chaitanya appears.      It is  also useful to recollect the beautiful shloka in the Geeta where Lork Krishna says:      Ananyash Chintayanto  man ye  janah      paryupaste  Tesham  nityabhiyuktnam      yogakshmeam Bahamyaham.           (those men, who, meditating on      Me as  non-separate, worship Me all      round - t them who are ever devout,      I secure gain and safety.)" Thus there  can be  no doubt that religious experience is an internal experience and the Deity in a temple is supposed to provoke that  inner experience.  The image  of the Lord in a temple, after  prana pratishtha  is done,  is  a  center  of reference,  a   symbol  of  the  Great  Consciousness  whose attainment  is   ultimately  the   pinnacle   of   religious experience. The  nature of  a religious  experience  can  be shadowgraphed by  peace, tranquility  and joy  ‘that passeth understanding’. It  would also  be relevant  to note  that a temple based  upon any  ‘sampradaya’ must  resemble  a  true symbol of the Infinite Grace, the nature of which is rightly called as  a the  amalgam of being, consciousness and bliss. That is why in Manasollasa (ix-47) it has been said:-      Sachchidanandrupai      Bindunadantaratmane      Adimadhyantshunyay  Gurunam   Gurbe      Namah.           (Obesance to  Him, the Guru of      the    Gurus    who    is    Being,      Consciousness and Bliss; who dwells      in  Bindu  and  Nada;  who  has  no      beginning, middle or end.) Material fruits,  namely, sons,  grand sons,  houses, lands, money, grain,  all in  plenty which  accrue in  Swaraga  are considered to  be  lesser  benefits  and  lesser  lights  to achieve in  comparison  to  the  true  empire,  namely,  the identity of  the Self with the Supreme Being (Slokas X-2, 3, 19 and 21 Manasollasa).      According to  Hindu belief,  worship of  God is of four kinds,  viz.,   Japa-chanting  Gayatri  mantras  (sloka)  or Asthakshara; Homa - giving oblation into the fire; Archana - worship of God in the form of Idol in the temple; and Dhyana - concentration  on God alone. Of these four, Archana gained an established form of worship in temple.      The reason  for adorning  a Deity  image in  a  temple, therefore,  is  to  produce  chitta  suddhi  generating  and ensuring  the   necessary  emotion  for  the  sustenance  as ‘tatparata’, the  Supreme Devotion, parabhakti, which is the ‘abhedbhavana,’   culminating    in   the    attainment   of ‘sarvatmatva,’ thus in itself becoming.      How  does   this  great  spendid  religious  experience transform the  life of a man form a mere temporal pursuit of limited vision  into  an  expanasive  pursuit  of  equality,

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seeing one’s  own self  in the  others and ultimately losing one’s ego  and dissolving  it into  the subaudited symphonic testament of  love,  joy  and  peace?  The  ascent  form  an empirical experience  of personal  life which  is the  first assertion of  a religious experience is to be followed right up to the stage of mutual communion, i.e., of the individual self with relationship outside becomes inevitable.      John Macmurray  once again in "Reason and Emotion" says thus:      There is, then, a definite field of      empirical experience  which is  the      field of  religion. It is the field      of personal  life - not, of course,      the field  of individual isolation.      When Professor  Whitehead says that      religion is  what a  man does  with      his solitariness  he is saying what      is almost the reverse of the truth;      although   he   is,   unlike   many      philosophers, moving  in the  right      universe of  discourse. Religion is      what a  man makes  of his  personal      relationships.   This    field   of      personal   relationships   is   the      center of every human life. That is      a mere  statement of  fact. But  it      does not  follow that  every  human      life  realizes   itself   religious      nature.     In     his     personal      relationships a man is in the field      of religion.  Whether  he  achieves      reality in  this field  depends  on      whether  he   is  able  to  achieve      objectivity and  mutuality. We  may      live in  relation to  other persons      as  if  the  relation  were  not  a      personal   one,    it   always   is      personal, whatever we do about. But      we may  behave as  if it  were not.      All  failure  of  this  kind  is  a      failure to realize in action - and,      consequently, in  reflection -  the      real  nature  of  the  relationship      between persons.  It  involves  the      loss of  personal  objectivity.  In      relation ship  to another person we      isolate ourselves  and so fall into      subjectivity       and       become      individualists. When  that happens,      the  relationship   is  treated  in      action and  in thought as of a sub-      personal  type.   There   are   two      possibilities.  One   is  that  the      relation  is   treated  as  of  the      material type;  in which  case  the      other individual  is treated  as an      instrument or  a means.  Slavery is      the crudest  form of  this type  of      unreality        in        personal      relationships, but  it includes any      relationship in  which  individuals      use one another as instruments. The      second type  of unreality falsifies      the personal relationship by making      it  organic.   In  that   case  the

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    relationship    is    treated    as      functional  and   becomes   a   co-      operation for  the achievement of a      common purpose.  Any conception  of      human relationships  which  grounds      them upon the existence of a common      purpose which  each serves  in  his      own way  involves unreality  o this      type.  Such  conceptions  of  human      relationships     are      properly      described as  irreligious,  because      they  deny   the  reality   of  the      relationship  as   a  communion  of      persons. It is not enough to insist      that human  nature is   essentially      social, since  society may take any      of  these  forms.  What  makes  the      society real  is that the relations      between the  persons concerned  are      essentially religious,  that is  to      say, grounded  in mutual communion,      and   the   equality   which   this      implies.  For   without   equality,      there can be no mutuality. I do not      mean, of  course, that  in  a  true      society   organic    and   material      relationships between  persons  are      non-existent, but  only  that  they      are  dependent   relations  falling      within and grounded in the relation      of friendship. The material and the      organic are unreal in independence.      Their   reality   lies   in   their      dependence upon  the  personal  and      their inclusion within it." The author  very beautifully describes the experience of God thus:      "The dualism  of  mind  and  matter      reflects itself  all too  easily in      the  dualism  between  secular  and      sacred, natural  and  supernatural,      the  human   and  the  divine.  The      result is  that we  think of God as      isolated  from   the   world   and,      therefore, that  the religious life      involves a turning away from man to      God, from  this  world  to  another      world,  so  that  religion  becomes      something  apart,  instead  of  the      fundamental activity of human life.      But now,  having  made  that  point      clear, I should like to indicate in      closing how  essential to  the view      that I have outlines is the idea of      God. All experience at any level is      the experience of the finite in the      infinite.  Even   a  triangle,   as      Spinoza pointed  out, can  only  be      seen, or  imagined, as a limitation      of infinite  space. At the material      level, we apprehended all materials      objects  as  finite  and  dependent      upon the material infinite. This is      not matter  of  reflection  but  of      immediate    common     experience.

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    Similarly    we    apprehend    all      organisms as  finite dependents  of      infinite life.  And when we come to      the  personal   field  it   is  not      different. I  have already insisted      that  our   apprehension   of   our      dependence   upon   what   is   not      ourselves. We  can now  see that it      is  an   apprehension  of  our  own      dependence and  the  dependence  of      all  other   finite  persons   upon      infinite   personality.    God   as      infinite personality is the primary      natural experience  of all persons.      One might  almost say,  if it  were      not for  the traditional limitation      of our use of language, that God is      the first perception." The  experience  of  God  is  not  simply  a  transcendental doctrine (theologia  transcendentalis), it  is not simply an unregulated usage  for satisfaction  of the intellect but is an  affirmative   experience.  Even  Kantian  believers  who conceive God  as supreme  and absolute  perfection, find  in Indian philosophy that religion is not the subject matter of inclusion or exclusion by the process of rational psychology but  the   subject  matter   of  human  experience.  On  the conception of  God as  supreme and  absolute perfection in a brilliant summary  of Kant’s philosophy Frederick Copleston, S.J. in Volume VI; (A History of Philosophy) says:      "We    have,    therefore,    three      principal  Ideas  of  pure  reason,      namely,  the   soul  as   permanent      substantial subject,  the world  as      the totality  of  casually  related      phenomena,  and   God  as  absolute      perfection, as  the  unity  of  the      conditions of objects of thought in      general. These  three Ideas are not      innate. At  the same  time they are      not derived empirically. They arise      as a  result of  the pure  reason’s      natural  drive  towards  completion      the  synthesis   achieved  by   the      understanding. This  does not mean,      as has  already been mentioned that      the pure reason carried further the      synthesizing   activity    of   the      understanding     considered     as      constituting  objects  by  imposing      the   a    priori   conditions   of      experience known as the categories.      The Ideas  of pure  reasons are not      ‘constitutive’. But  the reason has      a natural  drive  towards  unifying      the conditions  of experience,  and      this it  does by  proceeding to the      unconditioned. in  the three  forms      already mentioned. In doing this it      obviously passes beyond experience.      Hence the  Ideas of the pure reason      are called  by Kant ‘transcendental      Ideas’, though  he later goes on to      speak of  the third  Idea, that  of      God, as the ‘transcendental Ideal’.      For God is conceived as supreme and

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    absolute perfection." Johnson  said   rightly  that   sublimate  is   produced  by aggregation and  not by  dispersion. In  that lies  a  great truth. It  must not be forgotten that all rituals ultimately are only  means to  the state  of knowledge.  Thus seers and thinkers have  in fact  reduced rituals  to the bare minimum and sometimes  even decried  them  because  a  non-essential adherence to  them is  only  bound  to  be  an  obstacle  or impediment in  the attainment of true knowledge. It would be very useful  to note  that if  religious  experience  is  an internal experience,  rituals beyond  evoking the  necessary environment and atmosphere and as it were painting sea scope of purity  must yield  to the  unrelenting pursuit  of  true knowledge which is identical with true religious experience. The pursuit of knowledge, the knowing of the being, eve, has been described  by  eminent  philosophers  as  incapable  of sustaining  observance   of  rituals.  The  belief  is  that observance of  rituals and  the devotion  to true  knowledge cannot co-exist.      Shri  Acharya  Pada  in  the  Sarva  Vedantha  Sidhanta shlokas 857-862 says:-      Gyan   nistha    tatparasya    nait      karmopyujyate     Karmano      Gyan      nishthaya  na  sahsthiteh  Paraspar      Birudhyatwat      Tayor      Hhinna      Swabhhbaiyoh    Kartitwa    Bhawana      Purbam  karm   gyanam   vilakshanam      Dehatma-bvudherbichhitye     gyanam      karm  Bibridhaye   Agyanam  Mulakam      Karm Gyanantu  bhai nashkam. Gyanen      karmano   yogah   katham   sidhyati      berina  Sahyogo  na  ghatate  yatha      timirtejsoh      Nimeshonmesyorwape      tatheb   gyan    karmnoh   Pratichi      Pashyatah       punshah       kutah      prachibeloknam              Pratyam      Pravamchittasya    Kutah    Karmani      yogyata.           (When   the    mind    becomes      motionless, in  that case, the life      also becomes  unmovable. Hence  the      yoga  with   meditation  should  be      practised for  the control of chita      (mind). One  devoted to the pursuit      of knowledge  no longer remains fit      for  action.  The  co-existence  of      knowledge  and  action  is  not  to      succeed.   Due   to   their   being      mutually contradictory  in  nature,      involvement in  action with a sense      of  self-performance   causes   the      absence  of   knowledge.  But   the      renouncement  of   the   sense   of      bodily-self, goes for the promotion      of  knowledge.   The   action   and      knowledge   emanating    from   the      ignorance, are  destroyers of both.      How  there  can  be  the  union  of      knowledge and  action  inasmuch  as      they  are   incompatible?   It   is      impossible to  conjure darkness and      light together,  one  at  the  same      time.  The   knowledge  and  action      cannot be  combined.  Likewise  one      cannot keep  one’s eyes  closed and

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    open at  the same  time, one who is      looking western  side,  cannot  see      towards     eastern      direction.      Whereform   there    can   be   the      competence for  work or action when      one’s heart  and soul is set on the      devotion of  knowledge in  opposite      direction.) It thus follows that to one who is devoted to the pursuit of knowledge, the  observance of rituals is of no use since the observance of  rituals and  the devotion of knowledge cannot co-exist.  There  is  considerable  incompatibility  between knowledge and rituals inasmuch as their natures are entirely antithetical. It is only he who regards himself as the agent of action  that can  perform the  rituals; but the nature of knowledge is  altogether different  and it  dispels all such ideas. All the wrong ideas beginning with the identification of Self  with the  physical body  etc.,  are  eradicated  by knowledge, while they are reinforced by action. Ignorance of Atman is  at the  root of action, but the knowledge of Atman destroys both.  How is  it possible  for one  to perform the prescribed rituals while engaged in the pursuit of knowledge inasmuch as  they are incompatible! It is as much impossible as the  co-existence of  light and darkness. One cannot keep one’s eyes  open and  closed at the same time. It is equally impossible to  combine knowledge and rituals. Can one who is looking westward  look eastward?  How is  one whose  mind is directed towards  the innermost  Atman fit  to take  part in external activities?      In   the    celebrated   Gitabhashya   (XVIII-55)   Sri Acharyapada says:-      Na   hi    purpsamudram    jigmisoh      Pratilomyen         Pratyaksamudram      Jigmisuna Saman  Margtwam Sambhati.      Pratyagatma-bisai-Pratyaya   santan      karmabhinibeshashch Gyannistha,  Sa      cha Pratyaksamudragamanvat  Karmana      Sahvabitwen   birudhyati.    Parbat      Sarsapyoribantarbani       birodhak      Pramanwidam   Nishchitah.    Jasmat      Sarbkarmsanyasenaib     Gyananistah      karya iti sidham.           The meaning being:           "He who  wishes to  reach  the      eastern  ocean  should  not  indeed      travel in  the  opposite  direction      i.e. by  the same  road as  the one      chosen by  the person who wishes to      go to  the western  ocean. And  the      devotion to  knowledge consists  in      an    intent     effort     towards      maintaining a  continuous stream of      the  consciousness   of  the  Inner      self. There  would be contradiction      if it  were to  be  conjoined  with      ritual which  is like going towards      the western  ocean. It  is  a  firm      conviction  of   experts   in   the      pramanasastra that  the  difference      between the  two is as wide as that      between a  mountain and  a  mustard      seed. Hence the conclusion that the      devotion  to  knowledge  is  to  be      adhered to  only by  renouncing all      action."

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The truth  of religious experience is that true knowledge is an indication of a complete understanding of contradictions, just as  physics, which  means study  of simple  things, yet appears  to   be  a   complicated   subject.   A   beautiful illustration finds  place in  Richard  Dawkins’s  passionate (Darwanian) book named "The Blind Watchmaker":-      "I said  that physics  is the study      of simple  things, and  this,  too,      may seem  strange at first. Physics      appears   to   be   a   complicated      subject,  because   the  ideas   of      physics are  difficult  for  us  to      understand.   Our    brains    were      designed to  understand hunting and      gathering,   mating    and   child-      rearing; a  world of  medium  sized      objects moving  in three dimensions      at moderate  speeds.  We  are  ill-      equipped  to  comprehend  the  very      small and  the  very  large  things      whose  duration   is  measured   in      picoseconds or gigayears, particles      that don’t  have  position,  forces      and fields  that we  cannot see  or      touch,  which   we  know   of  only      because they affect things that can      see or touch. We think that physics      is complicated  because it  is hard      for us  to understand,  and because      physics books are full of difficult      mathematics. But  the objects  that      physicists    study    are    still      basically simple  objects. They are      clouds of gas or tiny particles, or      lumps  of   uniform   matter   like      crystals,  with   almost  endlessly      repeated atomic  patterns. They  do      not,   at   least   by   biological      standards, have  intricate  working      parts. Even  large physical objects      like stars  consists  of  a  rather      limited array  of  parts,  more  or      less  haphazardly   arranged.   The      behavior    of    physical,    non-      biological  objects  is  so  simple      that it is feasible to use existing      mathematical language  to  describe      it, which  is why physics books are      full of mathematics." No wonder,  the concept  of justice  too based on a sense of equality, whether distributive or corrective, always carries with  it   a  connotation   of  a   sacred   and   religious dispensation. If  ultimately the  Atman which resides in all beings is  that one  auspicious and pure which alone remains over, there  can be  no manner  of doubt that all beings are necessarily equal.  The Atman,  irrespective of the body and its temporal  abode with  attendant of earthly appellations, is  the   same  for  all.  It  is  described  by  Shri  Shri Acharyapada in the opening verse of the Dasasloki:-      Aibam  Samanyatoahan  Pratyayasidhe      Chidatmani     vadivipratipattebhih      samdidhe,   aham   pratyayasalambam      Visheshnirnayayah Vagwanacharyah:           Na Bhumirna  Toyam Na Vayur na      Kham Nendriyam  Na Tesham  Samuhah.

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    Anekantikatwatsushuptyek     Sidhah      Stadekkobashishtah           Shivah      Kewaloham.           "I am  neither the  earth, nor      the water,  nor the  fire, nor  the      air, nor  the space, nor any organ,      nor their  aggregate, because  they      are variable by nature, while Atman      is that  whose existence  is proved      by the  unique experience  of  deep      sleep. I  am that  One,  Auspicious      and Pure which alone remains over. The concept  of ‘dharma’  has been  explained by  Justice M. Rama Jois  in his  Legal and Constitutional History of India [Vol.I] at pages 1 to 4 thus:      "Mahabharata contains  a discussion      of this  topic. On being questioned      by Yudhistira about the meaning and      scope of Dharma, Bhishma stated:      Tadrishoayamanu Prashno yatra      Dharmah Sudurlabhah      Duskarah Pratisamkhyatum      Jatkenatra Vyavasyati      Prabhavarthai              Bhutanam      Dharmapravachanam      Kritam      Yah Syatpravabe Sanyuktah sa Dharma      Iti      Nishchayah.           It is most difficult to define      Dharma. Dharma  has been  explained      to  be   that   which   helps   the      puliftment   of    living   beings.      Therefore   that    which   ensures      welfare  (of   living  beings)   is      surely Dharma.  The learned  rishis      have declared  that which  sustains      is Dharma.           Taittiriya Samhita states:      Dharma Vishwasya Jagatah Pratistha      Loke Dharmistham Praja upsarpanti      Dharmen Papamapnudati      Dharme sarban Pratisthitam      Jasmed Dharman param Badanti.           Dharma     constitutes     the      foundation of  all affairs  in  the      world.  People   respect  one   who      adheres to Dharma. Dharma insulates      (man) against  sinful thoughts  and      actions. Everything  in this  world      is  founded   on  Dharma.   Dharma,      therefore, is considered supreme.      Jaimini 1.2:      Sa hi Nihshraisen Purusam      Sanyunakteeti Pratijanimahe      Tadabhidheeyate             Chodana      Lakshanartho      Dharmah.           Dharma  is   that   which   is      indicated by the vedas as conducive      to the highest good.           Madhavacharya, the Minister to      Hakka and  Bukka, founder  kings of      Vijayanager    Empire,    in    his      commentary on Parashara Smriti, has

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    briefly and precisely explained the      mening of Dharma as follows:           Abhyudaya           Nihshraise      Sadhantwen Dharayate - Iti Dharmah.      Sa      Cha      Lakshan-Pramabhyam      Chodanasutrairvyavasthapitah.           Dharma is  that which sustains      and ensures progress and welfare of      all in this world and eternal bliss      in the  other world.  The Dharma is      promulgated   in    the   form   of      commands. Therefore, Dharma  embraces every  type of righteous conduct covering every  aspect of  life essential for the sustenance and welfare  of the  individual and the society and includes those rules  which guide and enable those who believe in God and heaven to attain moksha (eternal bliss). Rules of Dharma are meant  to regulate the individual conduct, in such a way as to  restrict the rights, liberty, interest and desires of an individual as regards all matters to the extent necessary in the  interest of other individuals, i.e., the society and at the  same time  making it  obligatory for  the society to safeguard and protect the individual in all respects through its social  and political  institutions. Shortly put, Dharma regulates the  mutual  obligations  of  individual  and  the society. Therefore,  it  was  stressed  that  protection  of Dharma was  in the  interest of  both the individual and the society. A  ‘State of  Dharma’ was  required  to  be  always maintained for peaceful co-existence and prosperity of all.      Though Dharma is a word of wide meaning as to cover the rules concerning  all matters  such as  spiritual, moral and personal as  also civil, criminal and constitutional law, it gives the  precise meaning  depending upon  the  context  in which it  is used.  When Dharma  is used  in the  context of duties of the individual and powers of the King (the State), it means  constitutional law  [Rajadharma]. Likewise when it is said  theat Dharmarajya  is necessary  for the  peace and prosperity of the people and for establishing an egalitarian society, the  word Dharma  in the  context of the word Rajya only means  law, and  Dharmarajya means  Rule of Law and not rule of  religion or  a  theocratic  State.  Dharma  in  the context of  legal  and  constitutional  history  only  means Vyavahara-dharma  and  Rajadharma  evolved  by  the  society though the  ages which  is binding  both on  the  king  [the ruler] and the people [the ruled].      In "Religion  and Society  in Ancient  India" Prof.  Om Prakash [1985 Edition] has stated that the concept of dharma aims to maintain orderly society regarding every human being as the  creation of  God and  treating him  on a  footing of equality. Th  least rehyme  of the  Rig Veda throws light on the Rig  Veda concept  of dharma laying down "that all human beings should  move together, speak together and their minds be of  one accord".  Samgachhdhwam Sambaddwam  Sambo  Manasi Sanatnam Deva  Bhagan Yathaturbe  Sanjananam Upasate - Rv.X, 191, 2.] At page 5, he states that the concept of dharma was not static.  Its content  changes with the changing contexts of time,  place and social environment. Dharma is that which holds together  all living  beings in  a  harmonious  order. Virtuous conduct  contribute to  social welfare  and vice is its bane.  In the  Sutra literature  both these  aspects  of dharma are discussed under four sections which he elaborated in his  book. At  page 8,  the author states that "the above discussion makes  it clear  that dharma  in India  does  not force men  into virtue  but trains  them for it. It is not a fixed Code  of mechanical  rules but  a living  spirit which

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grows and  moves in  response  to  the  development  of  the society. Even the State in India is a swervant of dharma. It was not  above morality.  Its function  is not  to alter  or annul dharma  but only to administer it. Dharma is essential because it  promotes individual  security and  happiness  as well as the stability of the social order".      In "Dharma  - a  Legal Discipline - Select Speeches and Writings of  Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma, the present President of India [Indian Bar Review Vol.XX (3&4) 1993 Special Issue] in  his   Centenary  Speech  of  Swami  Vivekananda  in  the Parliament  of   Religions,  he   emphasised  "time-honoured philosophy of  oneness and  harmony  within  pluralism,  the recognition of,  respect for,  and acceptance  of  different paths of logical and intuitive access to Absolute Truth". He reiterated what  Swami Vivekananda  had said one century ago at Chicago:  "We believe  not only  in universal toleration, but we  accept all religions as true" and concluded that "if India is  to grow to her full potential as a strong, united, prosperous nation, a nation attuned to the highest moral and ethical values,  true to  the genius  of  her  cultural  and spiritual heritage,  we shall all have to strive each day to build harmony,  justice and creative endeavour. Indeed, in a very real way, it is our duty so to strive". He exhorted the youth of the country to be the vanguard of that mission.      In his  Dr. Zakir Hussain Memorial Lecture delivered at Visva Bharati  Shanti Niketan  on 29th April, 1989, Dr. S.D. Sharma stated thus:      "We in  India, however,  understand      Secularism to  denote ‘Sarva Dharma      Samabhava’:    an    approach    of      tolerance and  understanding of the      equality of all religions".      x       x       x        x        x           The  Bhagwad   Gita  indicates      this explicitly  in  the  following      Shlokas:           Ye  yatha   main   prapadyante      tamptathaiva   bhajamy-aham    pama      vartmuvartante   manusyah    nartha      sarvasag           In whatever  way men  identify      with Me, in the same way do I carry      out their;  men pursue  my path, in      all ways. (Bh.G.IV.11)           Yo yo  yam yam  tanum  bhaktah      Sraddhayarcitumicchati.       Tasya      tasyacalam     sraddhan     tam-eva      vidhamyaham)           Whatever form any devotee with      faith wishes  to  worship.  I  make      that faith steady. (Bh.G.:VII.21)           This philosophical approach of      understanding,   co-existence   and      tolerance is the very spirit of our      ancient  thought.   The  Rig   Veda      enjoins :           Samagacchadhvam  Samvedadhavam      Sam Vo  Manamsi Janatam Deva Bhagam      Yatha Purve Samajanna Upasate.           (Rg. Veda 10.191.2)           "Behave  with  others  as  you      would with  yourself. Look upon all      the living  beings as your friends,      for in  all of  them there  resides      one soul.  All are  but a  part  of

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    that universal  soul. A  person who      believes that all are his soulmates      and  loves  them  all  alike  never      feels lonely.  Divine qualities  of      such a  person such as forgiveness,      compassion and  service, will  make      him lovable  in  the  eyes  of  his      associates.  He   will   experience      intense joy throughout his life".           The Yajurveda states:           Mitrasaya ma  caksusa  Sarvani      Bhutani  Samiksantam.  Mitrasyacham      caksua  sarvani   bhutani  samikse.      Mitrasya caksusa samiksamahe.           (Yaju. Veda 38.18)           "May all  beings  look  on  me      with the  eyes of  a friend;  May I      look on all beings with the eyes of      a  friend.   May  we  look  on  one      another with the eyes of a friend." In his  address "Law & Morality Sustain the World" delivered on 25th  September, 1993  at the  First Convocation  of  the Nation Law  School of  India University, Bangalore, Dr. S.D. Sharma expounded the meaning of ‘dharma’ thus:      "What does Dharma mean? The word is      clearly  derived   from  the   root      ‘Dh.r’- which denotes: ‘upholding’,      ‘supporting’  ‘nourishing’  -  that      which upholds  is  Dharma.  In  the      Vana  Parva   of  the  Mahabharata,      Verse-58 in  Chapter 69  (Dharma is      for the  stability of  society, the      maintenance of social order and the      general well-being  and progress of      humankind. Whatever conduces to the      fulfillment  of   these  object  is      Dharma; that is definite.) The Brhadaranyakopanisad  identified Dharma  with Truth, and declared its Supreme status:      Sa      naib       Vyabhawatchhreyo      Rupamatyasrijat             Dharman      Jadetatkshtrasya           Kshatram      Yaddharmastasmasd   Dharmat   Param      Nasti.  Atho   Abaliyan  Samashaste      Dharmen Yatha  Ragya. Aibam  yo bai      sa Dharmah  Satyam bai  tat  tasmat      Saryam.  Badantmahur   Dharmam   wa      badntnam.  Satyam  badutityetadhyai      bai tadubhayam bhawati.           "There is  nothing higher than      dharma. Even  a very weak man hopes      to prevail  over a  very strong man      on the  strength of dharma, just as      (he  prevails  over  a  wrong-does)      with the  help of the King. So what      is called  Dharma is  really Truth.      Therefore, people  say about  a man      who declares  the truth  that he is      declaring dharma  and about one who      declares dharma  they say he speaks      the truth.  These two  (dharma  and      truth) are this"] A similar  thought is  expressed in the Ayodhya-kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana, in verse-10, Sarga-109      Satyamebanrishamasam ch Raj Brittam

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    Sanatanam Tasmat Satyatmakam Rajyam      Satya Lokah Pratisthitah.           [From the  ancient  times  the      constitutional  system  depends  on      the foundantion of Truth and social      sympathy. Truth  is the fundamental      basis  of  the  State;  indeed  the      whole universe rests on Truth.] The Rig  Veda states  that the  Law and  Truth are eternal - born of sacrifice and sublimation:           Ritam cha  Satyam Chabhidadhat      Tapsodhyajayat.           The Niti Vakyamrit begins with      the statement:           Ath  Dharmarth  Falai  Rajyaya      Namah.           The Yajnavalkya Smriti states:           Shrutih   Smritin   Sadacharah      Swasya cha  Priyamatmanah  Samyakam      Kalpjah    Kamo    Dharmamulormidam      Smritam.           (The Sruti,  the  Smriti,  the      approved  usages,   that  which  is      agreeable to  one’s in most self or      good  conscience,  and  has  sprung      from due deliberation, are ordained      as the foundation of Dharma.) The Markadeya Purana expresses the purpose of Dharma as:      Sarblok  Priyo   Nityamubachaidahar      Nisham   Nandantu    Sarb   Bhutani      Snidyantu  Vijanepwapi   Swastyastu      Sarb Bhurtesu Nirantakani Santu cha      Ma    Vyadhirastu    Bhutanamadhyon      Bhawantu cha  Maitrimashesh Bhutani      Tushyantu Sakle Jane Shibmastu D      wijatinam Pritirastu Parasparam.           (Ch/188,Verse 12-17)           (That  all   persons  may   be      happy,  may  express  each  other’s      happiness,  that   there   may   be      welfare of all, all being free from      fear  and   disease;  cherish  good      feelings and  sense of brotherhood,      unity and friendship) It is this stress on the identification of Dharma with Truth and social  well  being,  Duty  and  Service  that  impelled Yudhisthira to  express his  own ambition, as Dharmaraja, in the words:      Na Twaham  Kamaye Rajyam Na Swargam      Na Punarbhawam  Kamye Dukh Taptanam      Praninam Artnashnam.           (I  seek   no   kingdoms   nor      heavenly  pleasure   nor   personal      salvation,   since    to    relieve      humanity from  its  manifold  pains      and  distresses   is  the   supreme      objective of mankind). It is in this context that the phrase Dharm Vijayah ‘Victory of Dharma’  could be  understood, as employed by the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, in his rock edict at Kalsi which proclaimed his achievement in terms of moral and ethical imperatives of Dharma, and  exemplified the ancient dictum Yato Dharmastato Jayah (where there is Law, there is Victory).      In the midst of unity in diversity among Indians having different   religious   and   cultural   hues,   for   their

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assimilation as  integrated citizens, all endowed with human rights, dignity  of person,  equality of  status, liberty of faith   and   worship   with   fraternity,   the   religious spirituality fosters them as a strong unifying social entity with  personal  identity.  Swamy  Ranganathananda,  a  noted philosopher, in  his  lecture  on  ‘Science,  Democracy  and Religion’  delivered  on  August  28,  1954  in  Ramakrishna Mission Institute  of Culture, Calcutta, published under the title ‘Eternal  Values for a Changing Society’ had stated at pahe 637  that "With  the intensification  of  the  pace  of industrialization, our  centuries-old static  feudal society is being  profoundly  disturbed;  social  mobility  is  fast breaking  down   caste  and   other  old   forms  of  social relationships, and faster still, the social sanctions behind them. Virtues  that sustained  a static  age are found to be utterly inadequate  to the  demands of  a dynamic  society". Everywhere, old  values, old  edifices and  old  social  and economic  groups  are  crumbling  down.  This  is  just  the beginning of  the industrialization.  Complacency is  not  a solution  in   the  profound   transition   period.   Indian spiritualism had  responded successively  to all  changes on the  strength   of  her  tenacious  loyalty  to  fundamental spiritual values,  which India  placed at  the foundation of her national  culture. It  is this  faith in  ritual values, which has  been tested  in good and evil fortune. Science is characterized as  a keen  spirit of inquiry and deep passion for truth.  Science has  enabled the  human mind  to unravel secret after  secret from  nature  and  increase  enormously man’s knowledge  of the  world in with he lives. Speaking on democracy in  India he said that democracy has come to stay. How does  India proposes to assimilate the democratic values to her cultural heritage? Democracy should have a content of universal value  which is  something more  than  the  merely political, social  or national.  The value  is  the        * without that content, our democracy will be nothing fornthen a mere  carbon  copy  of  what  happens  in  the  democratic countries of the West. The science and democracy are shaping the growth and development of human culture and civilization with the  development of  science, an  amount of  force  and power, scientific  and political  is  itching  for  a  fight creating new  tensions, creating instability and insecurity. The nation  has to  handle the force and the power in such a way as not to result in corruption in the wielers and in the confusion to  harm the  people at large. India holds science and spirituality,  harmonious  and  hospitable  co-existence fostering human  values. Vedantha  enables  the  Indians  to digest  the  forces  generated  by  science.  The  spiritual meaning  of   democratic  living   and  fulfillment,   i.e., spiritual oneness  of humanity  taught by ancient and modern Indian seers  has to  be received  and reactivated  in men’s thinking and  day to  day living  and its powerful influence brought to  bear on  these  new  and  ever  newer  forms  of scientific and  social power,  thereby giving  them a higher direction and  a loftier,  spiritual and human purpose. This is the  central message  of religion.  It is a message which requires to be specially emphasized.      Religion   became identified  with untested beliefs and dogmas and  got shattered  in  the  progress  of  scientific inquiry. But  the mental make-up of Indians proceed from our long cultural experience; therefore, our spiritual religious experience  is   not  hostile   to  scientific   spirit  but sympathetic and  hospitable to  it.  Science  will  have  no opposition from  philosophy  or  religion  in  India.  Human welfare partly  depends upon  the knowledge  and control  of human environment,  natural and  social. Vedantha has always

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given an  honored place  to science  as also  to politics in this period  of human  welfare. Man is more than a political animal. He  is also  more than an intellectual being. He has depth and  heights which  cannot e  compressed in  a  purely materialistic    or    positivistic    philosopher.    Swamy Ranganathananda further stated as under:      "...  democracy   should   have   a      content of universal value which is      something  more   than  the  merely      political, social,  or national. It      is  obvious   that  value   is  the      ethical  and   spiritual   content.      Without that content, our democracy      will be  nothing more  than a  mere      carbon copy  of what obtains in the      medocratic countries of the West."           "In the  background  of  these      agitating questions  lies the great      spiritual heritage  of India. Those      who   are   acquainted   with   its      vitality hold  the hope  that India      can  yet  show  the  world  how  to      understand, assimilate, ant express      human values  which form  the theme      of  democracy  everywhere.  India’s      spirituality can enable Indians and      the peoples  of the world to digest      the  formidable   forces  that  are      being generated and placed in man’s      hands today.  The spiritual meaning      of    democratic     living     and      fulfillment, as  taught by  India’s      ancient and  modern  sers-in  other      words,   the    religion   of   the      spiritual oneness  of humanity  has      to be  revived and  reactivated  in      men’s  thinking   and  day  to  day      living, and  its powerful influence      brought to  bear on  these new  and      ever newer  forms of scientific and      social power, thereby giving them a      higher  direction   and  a  loftier      spiritual and human purpose.           This is the central message of      religion. It  is  a  message  which      requires to be specially emphasized      in the world in which we are living      today. The  ‘religion’  carries  to      some at least of the modern world a      bit of  bad odor. It is unfortunate      .e It  is  due  to  the  fact  that      religion  became   identified  with      untested beliefs  and  dogmas.  And      these got shattered in the progress      of  scientific   inquiry.  In   the      history  of  Europe,  religion  has      often functioned  as an  ‘enemy’ of      science. But that experience is not      universal or  invariable; it  is  a      story with  its background  in  the      West only  and not  in  India.  Our      entire  mental  make-up  proceeding      from our  long cultural  experience      is not  only not  hostile,  but  is      very sympathetic and hospitable to,

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    the scientific spirit. In his book,      the Discovery  of India,  our Prime      Minister,  Shri  Jawaharlal  Nehru,      has   expressed   the   view   that      science, which  has much  leeway to      make in  India compared  to Western      countries,   is   bound   to   make      increasing  advances  here  in  the      future because  of the  hospitality      of the  Indian national heritage to      science."           "That science is a fundamental      force and that it does have a great      message for  all men  is understood      in Inaia,  no less  than elsewhere.      Human welfare  partly depends  upon      the knowledge  and control  of  the      human  environment,   natural   and      social. Vedanta has always given an      honored place  to science,  as also      to  politics,  in  this  sphere  of      human welfare. But Vedanta has also      taught India  that these two do not      constitute the whole scope of human      welfare.  Man   is  more   than   a      political animal;  he is  also more      than an  intellectual being. He has      depths and  heights which cannot be      compassed in a purely materialistic      or positivistic  philosophy. Indian      thought recognizes  no compartments      or   divisions    in   the    human      personality   leading   to   mutual      exclusion and  hostility  in  human      aspirations  and  values,  such  as      pleasure and  profit,  science  and      art, morality and religion."           "The unity  of man  emphasizes      the  synthesis   of  his  interest.      While    accepting     the    great      importance of  science and politics      for man,  Vedanta evaluates them in      terms  of   his  total   needs  and      aspirations. Man  seeks  things  of      utility  for  the  sake  of  things      without  utility.  Science  through      technology can  give and  has given      man things of utility in abundance;      politics can  give  him  things  of      utility of  another order, a stable      social  order,  the  venue  of  his      life’s  experiments.   But  neither      science not  politics can  give man      peace or  happiness, joy or a sense      of    fulfillment.    These    non-      utilitarian  values  proceeds  from      religion and  morality. Science and      politics can create only conditions      for  their  emergence,  but  cannot      create them  directly. Without this      spiritual  direction,   the  forces      generated by  science and  politics      nourish the  lawer self  of man and      become  sources   of   sorrow   and      discord, division  and  instability

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    for man  and society.  A  knowledge      which  leads  to  the  increase  of      sorrow   is   not   knowledge   but      ignorance,   the    offspring    of      spiritual    blindness.    It    is      spiritual  awareness   alone   that      transforms   all   knowledge   into      wisdom, and into forms of peace and      happiness, love and service."           "The  transformation   of  the      world which  science  and  politics      seeks is  powerless to ensure human      welfare without  the transformation      of  human   nature  itself,   which      religion seeks through a discipline      of the  whole  personality,  it  is      only such  spiritually  disciplined      individuals  and  groups  that  can      ensure for  humanity at  large  the      values of  life, liberty,  and  the      pursuit of  happiness, of  liberty,      fraternity, and equality. The peace      and  happiness   of  man   and  the      stability and  ordered progress  of      civilizations depend  entirely upon      the    intensification    of    the      spiritual  awareness  of  humanity.      With this  spiritual awareness  for      foundation,   the    structure   of      civilization raised  by science and      democracy  becomes   structure   of      civilization raised  by science and      democracy   becomes    strong   and      steady; without  it,  it  sways  in      periodic  crises   to  topple  doen      eventually. Without the inspiration      of  religion,   civilization  shall      ever remain an unstable structure."           "Besides the integral unity of      man and his interests, Vedanta also      proclaims the  unity and solidarity      of all  existence. The objective of      Vedanta  is   the   happiness   and      welfare of  man; not man as divided      into  sects,  creeds,  castes,  and      classes, but man as man wherever he      may be found. Based on this unitary      and universal view of man upheld in      her philosophy,  religion in  India      taught that  man, in  the course of      his development,  in the  course of      his   self-expression,    generates      various forces, physical or mental,      social or  political, and  that the      development of  these forces  needs      to be  matched by  a  corresponding      development of  his inner spiritual      resources, which  alone can provide      the  factors  of  stability  to  an      evolving  personality   or   social      system."           "True       democracy       is      inconsistent with  a  narrow  self-      sufficient      nationalism      or      sectarianism; it must tend to reach

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    out to  the universal. Breaking the      barriers of  caste and  creed, race      and   se,   high   and   low,   the      democratic   ides,   deriving   its      sustenance  from  the  divinity  in      man,    marches     on,     without      obstruction, to  the realization of      the  universal.  Swami  Vivekananda      desired India  to uphold this ideal      of the  universal in  her  religion      and    politics,    science,    and      literature.  He  desires  India  to      strive  for   the  evolution  of  a      Vedantic civilization where science      and politics  would be  utilized to      lead  man   to  higher  and  higher      levels  of   self-expression;   and      merely  desired  it,  but  he  also      demonstrated that  India, among all      the  nations,   had  the  requisite      historically acquired  capacity  to      make  that  contribution  to  world      civilization." In "Chief  Justice Gajendragadkar" - his life, ideas, papers and addresses  - by V.D. Mahajan, in Chapter on "Secularism, its impact  on law  and life  in India"  it is  stated  that presonal law is a secular institution and has to be based on rational  and   secular  considerations.  This  position  is consistent with  the real,  ancient, pristine  view of Hindu law. Dharma,  according to  the old  concept,  is  a  purely secular institution.  Dharma  is  that  which  sustains  the society. Dharma  is that  by which  people at large are held together. At  page 234  the author quoted Dr. Gajendragadkar stating that  though the  Constitution guarantees freedom to all religions,  it recognizes  that in  certain aspects, and under certain  conditions, religious  practices may  impinge upon socioeconomic problems and the Constitution has made it clear that  wherever socioeconomic problems or relations are involved, the  State will  have a  right to interfere in the interests  of  public  good.  Articles  25  and  26  of  the constitution provide  for the  right to  freedom of religion and though  the Indian  Constitution is secular and does not interfere with religious freedom, it does not allow religion to impinge  adversely on  the secular  rights of citizens of the power of the State to regulate socioeconomic relations.      In "Religion and Politics" by Justice V.R.Krishana Iyer [1991 Edition]  it is stated at page 204 that "secularism in India has  a spiritual foundation not because of a profusion of  competing   religions  and   Gods  but  because  of  the realisation that  the universal  essence of  all of  them is that service  of man is the worship of God and the reverence for all  creation  is  compassion  which  springs  from  the recognition  of  the  divinity  immanently  everywhere.  Our composite cultural heritage comceives of a synthesis between these two  great values.  One does  not contradict the other but complements  the other.  True secularism  is humanism in action and perceives divinity in everyone. True spirituality is not  refuge in  other worldliness  and has  a  factor  of universality where  even on  the material  plane every human being is seen as of equal value and potential as every other member of  the human  family. We  have to steer clear of all narrow religious  denominations and communal classifications by emphasizing  that in  secular affairs  all will  be dealt with on  the  same  footing,  whether  one  belongs  to  the ‘minority’ or  the ‘majority’  community". At  page 205  the

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author has  stated that  "Equality and  fraternity, basic to national unity  and amity,  is impossible  without the broad base of  Human Rights.   So  it is  that today we have to be eclectic and  accept not  religion with  the capital ‘R’ but soul force  which resides in everyone’s bosom..... We need a social order whose life-breath is secularism, whose dynamics is social  and economic  justice. It is our fundamental duty to be secular in politics, not in rhetoric nor in cosmetics, but in every fibber of our being and every manner of living. May be,  we have  promises to keep and miles to go before we sleep".      The Preamble  of the  Constitution sets out secularism, equity, fraternity, liberty of worship and faith and dignity of persons  as integral  scheme of  the Constitution  in its march to  establish an egalitarian social order. Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles seek to resuscitate them. In S.R. Bommai  & Ors.  v. Union  of India & Ors. [(1994) 3 SCC 1], larger  Bench of nine Judges has held that secularism is basic structure of the Constitution. Religious tolerance and equal treatment  of all  religious groups  and protection of life, property  and place  of worship are essential parts of secularism.  Profession,  actions  and  conduct  of  persons should be  consistent with  secularism and  they need  to be measured in that perspective.      Religion in  development  is  man  in  search  of  God. Throughout the  history man  endeavors in  building  into  a fuller religious  life from  the experience  of the past and also with the consciousness of life in God that he seeks for He is  always eternally  in him. It is the eternal aspect of religion which  is expressed in the religious recognition in every human  life, at  any state  of its  development in the pursuit  of   knowledge  or   self-consciousness  or   self- realisation  and   of  personal  experience  of  eternal  or infinite worth,  there are  two aspects  of religion  true - religion and  religions. True  religion is  c religion  that seeks to live in the spirt, in what is beyond the intellect, beyond the aesthetic and  ethical and practical being of man and to inform and govern these members’ life by higher light and  law   of  the  spirit.  This  is  Vedanatha.  Religions entrenches itself  in some  narrow piestic exaltation of the lower members,  or lays  exclusive  stress  on  intellectual dogmeas, forms  and ceremonies on some fixed and rigid moral code on  some religio-political  or  religio-social  system, which are  not always  necessary or  worthy for  a spiritual religion and which disdain the aid of the forms, ceremonies, creeds or  system. The  fundamental desire of man is to make peace with  his inner life. The spiritual religion is a form of the  fundamental desire  of man  to make  peace with  his innerself   and    bring   to   bear   the   experience   of transplantation of  his current  personality into  a vibrant ready sense  of knowledge  of fulfillment and happiness. The experience of  the  man  has  to  be  propelled  and  to  be brightened rather  than dimmed  by the myriad tribulation of knowing the  system of  rituals or  feelings of inferior and inaccessible or  unnecessary to  realize the  Supreme Being. The need  to over-come  this is  the  pursuit  of  spiritual religion.      The importance of rituals in religious life is relevant for evocation  of mystic  and  symbolic  beginnings  of  the journey but  on them  the truth  of a  religious  experience cannot stand.  The truth  of a  religious experience  is far more direct,  perceptible and  important to human existence. It is  the fullness  of religious  experience which  must be assured  by  temples,  where  the  images  of  the  Lord  in resplendent glory  is housed. To them all must have an equal

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right to  plead and  in a  manner  of  such  directness  and simplicity that  every human being can approach the doors of the Eternal  with equality  and with equalaccess and thereby exercise greater  freedom in  his own  life. It is essential that the  value of  law must  be tested  by its certainty in reiterating the  Coare of  Religious Experience and if a law seek to  separate the  non-essential from  the essential  so that the  essential can have a greater focus of attention in those who  believe in such an experience, the object of such a law  cannot be described as unlawful but possibly somewhat visionary.      The word  ‘Dharma’ or ‘Hindu Dharma’ denotes upholding, supporting, nourishing  that  which  upholds,  nourishes  or supports the  stability of  the  society, maintaining social order and  general well-being  and  progress  of  man  kind; whatever conduces  to the  fulfillment of  these objects  is Dharma, it  is Hindu  Dharma and  ultimately  ‘Sarva  Dharma Sambhava’.      In contra  distinction, Dharma  is that  which approves oneself  or   good  consciousness   or  springs   from   due deliberation for one’s own happiness and also for welfare of all beings  free from fear, desire, disease, cherishing good feelings and  sense of brotherhood, unity and friendship for integration of  Bharat. This  is the core religion which the Constitution accords protection.      In Ganpat  v. Returning  Officer &  Ors. [(1975)  1 SCC 589], this  Court has  held that  religion is  essentially a highly personal matter and Hinduism is so tolerant and Hindu religious practices  so varied  and eclectic  that one would find it  difficult to  say whether a person is practising or professing Hindu  religion or  not. Religion  has  undergone several changes,  but the  fundamental, moral  and religious ideas of  the Hindus  which lie at the root of religious and charitable institutions,  remain substantially the same. The Hindu  is   inclined  to   believe  the   divine  in   every manifestation,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  it  doctrinally tolerant.  Therefore,   the  Hindu   is  disposed  to  think synthetically and to regard other  forms of worship, strange Gods, and  divergent doctrines  as  inadequate  rather  than wrong or objectionable; he tends to believe that the highest divine powers co-complement each other for the well-being of the world  and mankind.  Religion, therefore,  is one of the personal beliefs,  is more  a cultural  attitude  towards  a physical thinking  in that way of life and is worship of the image of God in different manifestation.      In Shirur  Matt’s, a  locus classics  on constitutional religion and  protection  of  Articles  25  and  26  of  the Constitution, this  court had  laid down that a religion may not only  lay down a code of ethical rules for its followers to accept,  it  might  prescribe  rituals  and  observances, ceremonies and  modes  of  worship  which  are  regarded  as integral parts  of religion, and these forms and observances might extend even to matters of food and dress.      In Sri  Venkataramana Devaru  & Ors.  v. The  State  of Mysore &  Ors. [(1958)  SCR 985],  this Court  surveyed  the historical background  in enacting  the Madras Religious and Charitable Endowment Act ( 29 of 1951) which is a pre-cursor to predecessor  Act 17  of 1966.  The question  therein was: whether Sri Venkataramana of Moolky Petta was a private or a public temple  or a  denominational institution?  This Court had held  that with  the growth and importance of temple and of worship  therein more  and  more  attention  came  to  be devoted to  the ceremonial  law relating  to construction of temple and  conduct of  worship of  the Deity  and  numerous other trusts  that came to be established for its existence.

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While explaining  the expression  "matters of religion" used in Article  26(b), this  Court said that practices which are regarded by  the community as part of its religion and under the ceremonial  law  pertaining  to  the  temples,  who  are entitled to  enter into  them for worship and where they are entitled to  stand for  worship and how the worship is to be conducted  are  all  matters  of  religion.  In  The  Durgah Committee, Ajmer  and Anr.  v. Syed  Hussain  Ali  and  Ors. [(1962) 1 SCR 383 at 411-412], another Constitution Bench of this Court  explained the connotation of the above statement of law thus:      "While we  are  dealing  with  this      point it  may not  be out  of place      incidentally to  strike a  note  of      caution and  observe that  in order      that  the   practices  in  question      should be  treated  as  a  part  of      religion they  must be  regarded by      the said  religion as its essential      and integral  part; otherwise  even      purely secular  practices which are      not an  essential  or  an  integral      part of  religion  are  apt  to  be      clothed with  a religious  form and      may make  a claim for being treated      as religious  practices within  the      meaning of  Art.26. Similarly, even      practices though religious may have      sprung  from  merely  superstitious      beliefs and  may in  that sence  be      extraneous     and     unsessential      accretions  to   religion   itself.      Unless such  practices are found to      constitute   an    essential    and      integral part  of a  religion their      claim  for   the  protection  under      Art.26 may  have  to  be  carefully      scrutinized; in  other  words,  the      protection must be confined to such      religious  practices   as  are   an      essential and  an integral  part of      it and no other." The  Act   regulates  administration   and  maintenance   of charitable and  Hindu religious  institutions and endowments in  their   secular  administration.  It  lays  emphasis  on preserving  Hindu   dharma  and   performance  of  religious worship, ceremonies  and poojas  in  religious  institutions according  to  their  prevailing  Sampradayams  and  Agamas. Section 13  enjoins that  the Commissioner  and every  other functionary under  the Act  "shall not  interfere  with  and shall observe  the forms,  usages, ceremonies  and practices obtaining in and appropriate to the religious institution or endowment". Section 23(1) equally obligates the trustee that he "shall  administer its  affairs in  accordance  with  the terms  of  the  trust,  the  usage  of  the  institution  or endowment and  all  lawful  directions"  issued  in  respect thereof. Section  142 puts  that "nothing  in the  Act shall affect the  performance or interfere with religious worship, ceremonies and  poojas in  religious institutions" according to Sampradayams  and Agama  followed  in  such  institution. Section 50 (1) enjoins propagation of Hindu Dharma.      In Sardar Syedna Taher Saifuddin Saheb v. The Estate of Bombay [(1962)  Supp. 2  SCR 496  at 521],  Sinha, C.J.  had held, in his separate but concurring judgmetn, that what are matters of religion and what are not is not an easy question

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to decide. It must vary in each individual case according to the tenets  of the  religious  denomination  concerned.  The expressions ‘matters of religion’ engrafted in Article 26(b) and ‘activities  associated with  religious practice’ do not cover exactly  the same ground. What are exactly "matters of religion"  are   completely  outside   State   interference, subject, of  course, to  public order,  morality and health. But activities  associated with  religious practice may have many ramifications  and  varieties  -  economic,  financial, political and  other such  activities as are contemplated in Article 25(2)  covering a field much wider than that covered by either Article 25(1) or Article 26(b). No demarcation can be classified  as to  which are  essentially and purely of a religious character  and those  which  are  not  essentially such. Considering the question whether ex-communication is a part of  religious practice,  on the  facts  in  that  case, majority  had   held  that  it  offends  Article  25(1)  and accordingly the provision was declared unconstitutional.      Articles 25  and 26  deal with  and  protect  religious freedom.  Religion   as  used  in  these  Articles  must  be construed in  its strict and etymological sense. Religion is that which binds a man with his Cosmos, his creator or super force. It  is difficult  and rather  impossible to define or delimit the  expressions "religion" or "matters of religion" used in  Articles 25  and 26.  Essentially,  religion  is  a matter of personal faith and belief of personal relations of an individual  with what  he regards as Cosmos, his Maker or his Creator  which, he  believes, regulates the existence of insentient beings  and the  forces of the universe. Religion is not necessarily theistic and in fact there are well-known religions in  India itself like Budhism and Jainism which do not believe  in the  existence of  God.  In  India,  Muslims believe in  Allah and  have faith  in Islam;  Christians  in Christ and  Christianity; Parsis  in Zorastianism;  Sikhs in Gurugranth Sahib  and  teachings  of  Gurunanak  Devji,  its founder,  which  is  a  facet  of  Hinduism  like  Brahamos, Aryasamaj etc.      A religion  undoubtedly has  its basis  in a  system of beliefs and doctrine which are regarded by those who profess religion to  be conducive  to  their  spiritual  well-being. Areligion is  not merely  an opinion, doctrine or belief. It has outward  expression in  acts as  well.  It  has  outward expression in  acts as  well. It  is  not  every  aspect  of religion that has been safeguarded by Articles 25 and 26 nor has the  Constitution provided that every religious activity cannot be interfered with. Religion, therefore, be construed in the  context of  Articles 25  and 26  in its  strict  and etymological  sense.   Every  religion  must  believe  in  a conscience  and   ethical  and  moral  precepts.  Therefore, whatever binds  a man  to his  own conscience  and  whatever moral  or  ethical  principle  regulate  the  lives  of  men believing in  that theistic,  conscience or religious belief that alone  can constitute  religion as  understood  in  the Constitution which forsters feeling of brotherhood, amenity, fraternity and  equality of  all persons  which  find  their foot-hold in  secular aspect  of the  Constitution.  Secular activities and  aspects do  not  constitute  religion  which brings under  its own  cloak every  human activity. There is nothing which  a man  can do,  whether in the way of wearing clothes  or  food  or  drink,  which  in  not  considered  a religious activity.  Every mundane or human activity was not intended to be protected by the Constitution under the huise of religion.  The approach  to  construe  the  protection  f religion or  matters  of  religion  or  religious  practices guaranteed by  Articles  25  and  26  must  be  viewed  with

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pragmatism since  by the  very nature of things, it would be extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  define  the expression religion  or matters  of  religion  or  religious belief or practice.      In pluralistic  society like  India, as stated earlier, there are  numerous religious  groups who  practise  diverse forms of worship or practise religions, rituals, rites etc.; even among  Hindus, different  denominats and sects residing within the  country or  abroad profess  different  religious faiths, beliefs  practices. They  seek to  identify religion with what  may in  substance be  mere facets of religion. It would, therefore,  be difficult  to devise  a definition  of religion which  would  be  regarded  as  applicable  to  all religions or matters of religious practices. To one class of persons a  mere dogma  or precept  or a doctrine may be pre- dominant in  the matter  of religion;  to others, rituals or ceremonies may  be pre-dominant  facets of  religion; and to yet another  class of persons a code of conduct or a mode of life may  constitute religion.  Even  to  different  persons professing the  same religious  faith some  of the  facts of religion may  have  varying  significance.  It  may  not  be possible, therefore,  to  devise  a  precise  definition  of universal application  as to  what is  religion and what are matters of  religious belief  or religious practice. That is far from  saying that  it is  not  possible  to  state  with reasonable   certainty   the   limits   within   which   the Constitution  conferred   a  right   to  profess   religion. Therefore, the right to religion guaranteed under Article 25 or 26  is not an absolute or unfettered right to propagating religion which  is  subject  to  legislation  by  the  State limiting or  regulating any  activity - economic, financial, political or  secular which  are associated  with  religious belief, faith,  practice or  custom.  They  are  subject  to reform on  social welfare  by appropriate legislation by the State. Though  religious practices  and performances of acts in pursuance  of religious  belief are  as much  a  part  of religion as  faith or belief in particular doctrine, that by itself is  not conclusive  or decisive.  What are  essential parts of  religion and  religious practice  is essentially a question of  fact to  be considered  in the context in which the question  has arisen  are  the  evidence  -  factual  or legislative or  historic -  presented  in  that  context  is required to be considered and a decision reached.      The Court,  therefore, while  interpreting Articles  25 and 26  strikes a careful balance between the freedom of the individual or  the group  in regard  to religion, matters of religion, religious  belief,  faith  or  worship,  religious practice or custom which are essential and integral part and those which  are not essential and integral and the need for the State  to regulate  or control  in the  interest to  the community.      There  is   a   difference   between   secularism   and secularisation. Secularisation  essentially is  a process of decline in  religious activity, belief, ways of thinking and in restructuring  the institution.  Though secularism  is  a political ideology  and strictly may not accept any religion as the  basis of  State action or as the criteria of dealing with citizens,  the Constitution of India seeks to synthesis religion, religious  practice or  matters  of  religion  and secularism. In  secularizing the  matters of  religion which are  not  essentially  and  integrally  parts  of  religion, secularisms, therefore,  consciously denounces  all forms of super-naturalism or  superstitious beliefs  or  actions  and acts which  are not  essentially or  integrally  matters  of religion  or   religious  belief   or  faith   or  religious

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practices. In  other words,  non-religious or anti-religious practribute in  some degree to the process of secularisation of the  matters of  religion  or  religious  practices.  For instance, untouchability  was believed  to be  the  part  of Hindu religious  belief. But  human rights  denounce it  and Article 17 of the Constitution of India abolished it and its practice in  any form  is a  constitutional crime punishable under Civil  Rights Protection  Act. Article 15(2) and other allied provisions achieve the purpose of Article 17.      The religious freedom guaranteed by Articles 25 and 26, therefore, is intended to be a guide to a community-life and ordain every  religion to  act according to its cultural and social demands  to establish  an egalitarian  social  order. Articles 25  and 26, therefore, strike a balance between the rigidity of  right to  religious belief  and faith and their intrinsic restrictions  in matters  of  religion,  religious beliefs and  religious practices  and guaranteed  freedom of conscience to  commune with  his Cosmos, Creator and realise his  spiritual   self.  Sometimes,  practices  religious  or secular, are instricably mixed up. This is more particularly so in  regard to Hindu religion because under the provisions of ancient  Samriti, human  actions from  birth to death and most of  the individual actions from day to day are regarded as religious  in character  in one  facet or the other. They sometimes claim  the religious  system or  anctuary and seek the  cloak   of  constitutional   protection  guaranteed  by Articles  25   and  26.   One,  hinges  upon  constitutional religious  model   and   another   diametrically   more   on traditional point  of  view.  The  legitimacy  of  the  true categories is  required to  be adjudged  strictly within the parameters of the right of the individual and the legitimacy of the  State for  social progress,  well-being and reforms, social intensification  and national  unity. Law is a social engineering and  an instrument of social change evolved by a gradual and  continuous process. As Banjamin Cardozo has put it in  his "Judicial  Process", life  is  not  a  logic  but experience. History  and customs,  utility and  the accepted standards of  right conduct are the forms which singly or in combination shall  be the  progress of  law. Which  of these forces shall  dominate in  any case depends largely upon the comparative importance  or value of the social interest that will  be,  thereby,  impaired.  There  shall  be  symmetical development with  history or  custom when  history or custom has been  the motive force or the chief one in giving  shape to the  existing rules and with logic or philosophy when the motive power  has been  theirs. One  must get  the knowledge just as  the legislature  gets it  from experience and study and reflection  in  proof  from  life  itself.  All  secular activities which  may be  associated with religion but which do not  relate or constitute an essential part of  it may be amenable to  State  regulations  but  what  constitutes  the essential part of religion may be ascertained primarily from the doctrines  of that  religion  itself  according  to  its tenets, historical  background and change in evolved process etc.  The   concept  of   essentiality  is   not  itself   a determunative factor.  It is  one of the circumstances to be considered in  adjudging whether  the particular  matters of religion or  religious practices  or belief  are an integral part of  the  religion.  It  must  be  decided  whether  the practices  or   matters  are   considered  integral  by  the community itself. Though not conclusive, this is also one of the facets  to be  noticed.  The  practice  in  question  is religious in  character and  whether it could be regarded as an integral  and essential  part of  the religion  an if the Court finds  upon evidence  adduced before  it that it is an

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integral or  essential  part  of  the  religon,  Article  25 accords protection  to it. Though the performance of certain duties is  part of  religion and  the person  performing the duties is  also part  of the  religion or religious faith or matters of religion, it is required to be carefully examined and considered  to decide whether it is a matter of religion or  a   secular  management   by  the   State.  Whether  the traditional practices  are matters  of religion  or integral and essential  part of  the religion  and religious practice protected by  Articles 25  and 26  is the  question. Whether hereditary archaka  is an essential and integral part of the Hindu religion is the crucial question?      Justice B.K.  Mukherjea in  his Tagore  Law Lectures on Hindu Law  of Religious  and Charitable  Trust,  at  page  1 observed:      "The  popular   Hindu  religion  of      modern times  is not  the same as a      religion of  the Vedas  though  the      latter are  still held  to  be  the      ultimate source  and  authority  of      all those held sacred by Hindus. In      course  of   its  development,  the      Hindu religion  did undergo several      changes,  which   reacted  on   the      social   system    and   introduced      corresponding changes in the social      and  religious   institution.   But      whatever changes were brought about      by time  it cannot be disputed that      they   were    sometimes    of    a      revolutionary   character   -   the      fundamental,  moral  and  religious      ideas of the Hindu which lie at the      route   of   their   religion   and      charitable   institution   remained      substantially  the   same  and  the      system that we see around us can be      said to  be a  evolutionary product      of the  spirit  and  genus  of  the      belief  passing  through  different      ways     of      their     cultural      development". The basis  of Hindu  Dharma is  two-fold. The  first is  the Vedas and the second are the Agamas. Vedas, in turn, consist of four   texts,  namely, Samhitas, Bramhanas, Aranyakas and Upnishads.      Samhitas are  the  collections  of  mantras.  Bramhanas explain the  practical aspects  of the  rituals as  well  as their meanings.  They explain the application of the mantras and the deeper meanings of the rituals. Aaranyakas go deeper into the  mystic meanings  of  the  rituals,  and  Upnishads present the philosophy of the Vedas.      From the  point of  view of content, they are viewed as Karma Kanda  (sacrificial portion)  and  Jnana  Kanda  which explain the  philosophical portion. The major portion of the Vedic literature  enunciates the  vedic  sacrifices  or  the rituals which  inevitably cultivate in the philosophy of the Upanishads. That  is why  the Upanishads are called Vedantha or culmination of the Vedas.      The  essence  of  the  Vedic  religion  lies  in  Vedic sacrifices which  not only  purify the mind and the heart of those who  participate in the sacrifices but also reveal the true  and   unfragmented  nature  of  the  Karman  (Action). Erroneously, Western scholars explained the Vedic sacrifices in terms  of either  sympathetic magic or an act of offering

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the fire  to Gods  emulating the  mundane  act  of  offering gifts. Thus, for them Vedic religion is a primitive religion and  Vedic   Gods   are   simply   representing   insentient departments of  Nature; but  it is  not so. On the contrary, the term used for Vedic Gods is "Deva" which literally means "the shining  ones". The  adorable ones - bestowing grace on the worshippers.  The root  ‘Div’ also  means that Devas are the  embodiment  of  unfragmented  consciousness,  which  is ultimately one  and non  dual. Likewise, the Vedic sacrifice is an  act of  re-enactment of  the cosmic  creation; in our mundane life,  our life  of  action  is  simply  a  life  of fragmented act.  This is  because of Raga Dvesha whereby the perception is  limited. The fragmented acts emanate from our deep rooted  attraction and hatefulness. The Vedic sacrifice moves towards  "Poorna", i.e., plenitude and thus overcoming the problem  of fragmented action in our lives. Onwards, the seeker moves  towards the knowledge of self or the Brahaman. So many Upasanas are taught in the Vedas but not elaborated. The Agamas  have elaborated  these Upasanas  such  as  Madhu Vidya and Dahra Vidya.      Upanishads speak  of Para  Vidya and Apara Vidya. Apara Vidya deals  with  Jnana  through  various  methods.  Agamas explain these  Para Vidyas.  The Agamic  texts contain  four parts, namely,  Vidya Pada, Kriya Pada, Charya Pada and Yoga Pada.      Each text  of the  Agamas has the first portion, called ‘Samhita’ which  contains the  four parts  namely the  Vidya Pada, Driya  Pada, Charya  Pada and  Yoga Pada.  Vidya Psada offers an  elaborate enunciation  of the philosophy, whereas Kriya Pada  deals  elaborately  with  the  act  of  worship. Worship is  viewed as  Samurta Archana.  In other words, the Gods are  endowed   with  form  the  this  form  of  worship culminates into  Amurta or  Nishkala Archana  by  which  one worships and  realizes the  formless. These are the steps to be treated upon one after another.      The temples  are taken  to be  sanctified  space  where entire unfragmented  Space and  time, in  other  words,  the entire ‘Universe’  are deposited  and the image of the Deity is  worshipped   symbolizing  the  "Supreme".  Although  the Deities appear  to be  many, each  and every  Deity is again viewed as  the  Supreme  One  and,  therefore,  the  Supreme Reality is  one and  non-dual. The  multiplicity of the Gods has been  effected in  order to  offer the  paths which  are required according  to the entitlement and evolution of each and everyone.  That is why the progress towards the ultimate evolutionary  goal   of  man   depends  upon  his  level  of comprehension and  his capacity  to learn. This is the whole concept  of  a  Guru  who  knows  precisely  the  extent  of spiritual evolution of the seeker and would know what is the stage from which the seeker has to proceed.      Hinduism cannot  be defined  in terms  of Polytheism or Hennotheism or  Monotheism. The  nature  of  Hindu  religion ultimately is  Monism/Advaita. This in contra distinction to Monotheism which  means only one God to the exclusion to all others. Polytheism  is a  belief of multiplicity of Gods. On the contrary,  monism is  a spiritual belief of one Ultimate Supreme and  manifest Himself  as Many. This multiplicity is not contrary  to Non-Dualism.  This is the reason why Hindus start adoring  any Deity  either handed down by tradition or brought by  a Guru  or Swambhuru  and  seek  to  attain  the Ultimate Supreme.      The construction  of the  temple,  the  nature  of  the sculpture and  the specific way of worshipping the Deity are taught in  the respective  Agamas, namely, Vaishnava, Saiva, Shakti, Skanda,  Saura (Surya)  and Ganpatya.  The Vaishnava

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Agamas are divided into pancharatra and  Vaikhanasa, whereas Saiva agamas  are seen  as non-dualistic, dualistic-cum-non- dualistic and  dualistic together. Each sect follows its own Agamic tect  in  constructing  the  temples,  chiseling  and consecring the  Idol, the  Images,  as  well  as  performing worship. In  was believed  that the  priest knew  the texts, receiving uninterruptedly  from their  predecessors  in  the family or  from Guru.  This succession either through family or through  the Guru  is called  Parampara. It has now taken shape in  Agama schools  established by  the State   wherein Agamic education  is taught. Purohit, thus educated, becomes an accomplished  priest fit  to perform rituals according to particular Agama  and Sampradaya.  The dispensation of these rituals in  accordance with the Agamic Shastras is meant for enlightened ones and not as a common rule. The entire Indian history of  art owes  its development  of Agamic texts which elaborate  rules   of  temple  architecture,  image  making, ritualistic celebrations, music, paintings and dane etc.      The entire  life is  thus woven  around the temples and the rituals  taking place  all over  the year.  This  is  to symbolise the philosophy that these actions are religious.      Worship is a mystic act by which the devotee identifies himself with  the Deity  which in turn represents the Cosmic Supreme.  Thus  the  form  of  worship  varies  from  simple ‘panchopachara’  pooja   to  ‘Shodhasopchara’   pooja.   The offerings of  articles is  related  to  elements  of  nature identifying ourselves  with the  Cosmos. The entire basis of Agamas isto  support the  fundamental supposition  of  Hindu philosophy that  there is the unity of external and internal as well  as the  Pinda and  Bramhanda. Whatever  appears  as Darkness externally,  is ignorance  internally. Whatever  is light externally,  is  knowledge  internally.  This  is  the reason  why  in  the  Agamic  way  of  worship,,  there  are practices identifying  the limited self with the Cosmos, and internalising of  the  external  image.  This  principle  is reflected in:-      "Devobhootva devam Yajet" In fact  the devotee  is first expected to transform himself in to  the  Deity  and  then  approach  the  Deity  and  the purificatory exercise  is meant to prepare one for being one with the Deity.      ‘Nyasa’ means  depositing the entire Cosmos worship may be simplistic  or elaborate.  It is believed that the ‘Kala’ or the  ‘power’ increases  along with increase in investment of worship.  The logic:  "The increased  worship is effected into the wider participation - individual as well as social. This is  the gradual  expansion of the grade bestowed on the greater  number  of  the  men  and  women  as  well  as  all creatures.   Therefore,    right   from    Panchopchara   to Devaupachara to  Shodashaupchara  and  to  Rajopachara,  all forms of  worship have  got their  won importance.  It is  a matter  of  only  one’s  capability.  There  is  a  definite correspondence between  Vedic  and  Agamic  worship.  Agamic worship is  worship of  image in  or outside  a temple.  The Mandapa of  the temple  corresponds to  the Vaidika  in  the Vedic rituals,  the Yupa  or the  post outside  the  Mandapa corrosponds to  the "Dhuaja".  Offerings of  articles in the Agamic worship  correspond to offering of the Ahuti in Vedic Sacrifice.      Temple  has   become  the   most  important  center  of activities  -  religious,  cultural  and  social  among  the people, in  particular rural  India. Temple  is conceived in the likeness  of human  body. Parts  of the temple are named accordingly, by  which the  organic unity  of the  temple is emphasized. Obviously,  therefore,  religious  people  endow

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their property  for upkeep  of  temples  or  propagation  of religion. Majority  people in India are dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti,  Ganpathi and  Hanuman  of  Hindu  Gods.  The cardinal principle  underlying idol  worship is  for one  of four modes  for  self-realization.  Daily  routine  life  in performing rituals to Deity will be gone through with minute accuracy  of   Abishek  (bathing),   changing  of   clothes, offerings of  food  and  the  retirement  (rest).  Religion, therefore, has  occupied a significant place and role in the public life  in our country. Hindus, therefore, believe that religion is  an essential  and powerful  factor  in  raising humanity to  higher level  of thought  and being. The priest (archaka or  by whatever  name called) would conduct rituals to the Deity as per prescribed Agamas, formas, practices and sampradayams.      Shri Suniti  Kumar Chatterji  in  his  Preface  to  the Cultural Heritage  of India, Institute of Culture, Vol.IV at page xv had stated thus:      "Men are  equal  on  the  basis  of      their common  humanity,  though  no      two individuals  are  the  same  in      their  intellectual  and  spiritual      framework,  as  much  as  in  their      physical complexion. There are some      people   who   are   intellectually      strong, and  there are  others  who      are easy  to move  emotionally. And      there  is   a  larger  group  which      reacts to  impulses  and  instincts      more  than  to  anything  else.  To      people of these three main types of      outlook, and  those of  other types      also,   religion,    both   as   an      individual experience  and practice      and as  a social  vehicle  carrying      the   individual   members   of   a      particular   society    in    their      progress in  life, must  ipso facto      present  a  bewildering  series  of      diversities.     The     scriptural      religions    like     Islam     and      Christianity  theoretically  insist      on  dogmas   and  a   uniform   and      unalterable reed.  Yet we  have  in      Christianity  so   many   different      sects, sometimes  with notions  and      ideologies which  go counter to one      another. And  Islam too  recognizes      the    seventy-two    firgahs    or      sectarian organizations.  Christ is      quoted  to   have  said,   ‘In   my      Father’s house  are many mansions’.      Could we  not legitimately  take it      to mean  that a  great latitude was      allowed by  him in the sum total of      the  faith   and  behavior  of  the      elect,  all  together  forming  the      entire body  of  the  faithful  who      believed in  Christ? Similarly,  in      spite of  the preaching in Islam of      the path  of orthodoxy  as embodied      in a  literal interpretation of the      Word of  God, Kalam Ilahi, which is      the Quran,  one of  the  Hadith  or      traditional sayings  as ascribed to

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    the   Prophet   runs   like   this:      "Thruqu-Ilahi  ka-’adadi’  anfasil-      makhluqali" -  the ways  of God are      like  unto  the  breathing  of  all      created  beings.   There  are  many      people who  therefore consider that      it  would   be  nothing  less  than      blasphemy  to   assert   that   the      ultimate Reality  can be approached      only by  one path  - and  that path      presumably is  the  one  which  the      person  making  such  an  assertion      believes in." On the ‘Vaikhanas Early History And Literature’ at page 160- 161, it  is stated  that the  Vaikhanasa Sastra  sets  great store by  purity of  conduct, as  is evident from Kalidasa’s Sakuntala (I.  22), where  King Dusyanta   inquires  whether Sakuntala   observes   Vaikhanase-Vrata.   Vaikhanasa   were entrusted with  the management of temples and their land and property. They  entered into  agreements  with  the  revenue officers and  the assemblies  in  matters  relating  to  the cultivation  of   assigned  lands   and  sometimes  also  of unassigned lands. They were the hereditary trustees of Visnu temples, managed  their properties, and conducted the divine service. Shrines  of Ramanuja and the Alvars were added, and in the  associated temples  in Tirupati town and Tiruchanur, the pancharatra  form  of  worship  was  introduced.  Jiyars (monks of  the Ramanuja  school) took  charge of  the Balaji temple, where  the  services were performed by Vaishnavas of that School.  Yet pooja to Balaji (Sri Venkateswaraswamy) in the sanctum sanctorum continues to be done by the Vaikhanasa according to  the  Vaikhanasa  Sastra  which  is  purely  in Sanskrit. There  are more temples in South India today under the Vaikhanasa  Agama than  under the  Pancharatra. Devotion (bhakti) and  self-surrender  (Prapatti)  to  His  will  are together the  master keys to open the gates of divine grace. Vaikhanasa’s chief  contribution to  spiritual life  is  the emphasis on  the worship, service, and adoration of the lord of in the acre (image) form in which He ‘decends with a non- material body’,  and in which He is present eversince as the surest  means   of  liberation.   Vaikhanasas  place  grater emphasis on acre worship.      Brighu  Kriyaadhikaare   states   that   according   to Vaikhanasa Sastra,  the Priest  (Acharya) must be one who is well-versed in  Vedic lore, of dharmic persuasion, thirsting for Janana (wisdom), gentle having control over senses, pure and attached  with total  dedication to  the worship of Lord alone. The  priest shall  carry on  daily rituals of worship and  all   rites  according   to  sastric   injunctions.  In Vaikhanasa Prakirnadhikara  at page 443, it is tated that an Acharya (fully  qualified man)  alone should be appointed as the priest.  It also  indicates dismissal  of a priest if he was fund  having deflected  from his duty and appointment of another person  in his place. At page 269 it states that the priest must be provided with Dakshina (money for officiating priest) for  his sustenance  and maintenance  of himself and his family so as to keep the priest in comfort and free from want. It  also speaks  of employment of an archaka for life. At pages  302 and  303, it  is stated  that the owner of the temple should  appoint one  or two archakas according to his capacity. The  archakas must be of Vaikhanasa and haying the qualities  mentioned  above  and  free  from  vices.  He  is enjoined to  divide his  earnings  into  three  equal  parts keeping for  himself 2/3rd  share for maintenance of himself and his  family and  1/3rd share  for carrying  out  dharmik

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purposes. He  is also  directed to  enjoy  the  gifted  land according to the stipulations.      In Prakirnadhikara,  (para 12) it is mentioned that the income from  property of  the temple  be divided  into three parts -  first part  to be  retained  for  himself  and  his family; the  second part  for the  temple; and the third one for the  construction of  the temple  - taking  care of  the residence of  the archaka. In Kashayappa Jhanakanda, para 21 also mentions  the same.  The Agama  text intended  to avoid confusion in  procedures of  worship by  insisting upon  the hereditary character  of priesthood (either in the family or through teacher pupil line). Prakiranadhikara (17 & 39) says that when  a priest  is already  performing rituals no other priest must  enter the  sanctum sanctorum.  Only one  person must  do  all  the  things  himself  prohibiting  others  to participate. The  order of  Guru was described as binding as an order  of a  king. The  right to  live in  comfort on the provisions made  by the owner of the temples was intended to keep the  priest above want so as to attend his duty without worry and  the same  finds mention  in Prakirnadhikar, paras 17, 84  and 86. It is also insisted that Guru (priest) or in his absence his son or grandson or great grandson or brother or his  disciple or his disciple’s disciple or a Brahmachari should  be   chosen  in   succession.   As   is   found   in Prakirnadhikara, the selected priest must be well-vbersed in Vaikhanasa  Statra      with   qualities   lide   gentleness controlling senses,  purity, character  and devotion  to the worship of Shri Maha Vishnu etc. The idea is that one devoid of divinity  cannot get  into any association with divinity. Shri  Paramaprush  in  Chapter  II  prescribes  in  para  35 appointment of  archaka. The  owner of  the  temple  without executing a gift of land in the aforementioned manner  fixes monthly salary  to the  archaka, failure  thereof  leads  to ruination of  the owner’s  life. The  owner should  not feel jealous of  the earnings  of the archaka and his prosperity. It does  not specify  that  archaka  should  belong  to  the specific denomination  or group  of which are temple service is done  traditionally according  to  Agamas.  According  to Brighu Kriyaadhikara (302-304) Viriti Kalpapnam, a permanent settlement has  to be  made for  their maintenance  and  the worship of Deities is done properly by qualified priest.      In    ‘Sri     Panchartraparamyam’    by     Dr.     V. Vardacharyamaharshya at  page 21,  he has  stated  that  the Sanskaras like  Niseha must  be performed according to one’s own sutra or by the method of Pancharatra as might have been followed by  one’s own  family hierarchy.  At page 70 he has further stated  that in  Lakshmitantra in  Telugu manuscript all priests  do not  have   the right  to perform worship in temples. Only  panchratra followers  who know  the kunna and madhyandina sahta  are entitled  to perform  the worship  in Vishnu temples;  only such  great munis (Rishis) in the line of     succession  have   right  to   perform  rituals.   In Jayakhyasamhita of Pancaratra Agama by E. Krishnamacharya at page 22,  it is stated that priest of Vaishnava cult has the right to perform worship by heredity. In Satvata-Sanihita at page 411, the way the abhiseka (the ablution) may be done by the  principle   priest,  is   mentioned.  Others   who  had initiation (Diksha),  disciple  of  Guru,  or  the  son,  or disciple with good qualities mentioned above are eligible to perform pooja.  In this  way the abhiseka would be done only by those  who are  born in the family of Acharyas. The right of karsana  etc. vests  only in  such persons.  In  "Laksmi- tantra", a  Pancharatra Agama  by Pandit V. Krishnamacharya, it is  stated at  page 1  that in the Vaikhanasa system only those priests who by the tradition of heredity belong to the

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Vaikhanasa sutra perform the worship for sacraments like the birth ceremonly,  naming ceremony  etc. and follow the rules prescribed therein,  i.e., the Vaikhanasa sutras. At page 2, he has  stated that  in the  Pancharatra system  all priests have a  right to  worship the  images (established  in their houses) for  their own  benefits. But for conducting worship in the  temple  particularly  in  famour  temples  only  the descendants  of  the  priests  properly  initiated  (Diksha) especially by  family traditions,  are entitled  to  be  the priests. Others  have only  a secondary  right. The  special initiation to  others is not prohibited. This is the current tradition. It is stated in Padma Samhita that for conducting worship for  others, Brahmins  only are  entitled to perform worship. At  page 165,  he has  stated that there afterwards the text prescribed that in the matter of performing worship for others  only the  descendants of  the family of Kashyapa etc. have  the right,  which is not universal. But that text is found  only in  the manuscript in Telugu script. There is some ‘scope  to conclude  that this  portion might have been contrived by some elements who wanted to establish their own exclusive  right  to  perform  worship  for  others  in  the temples.  That   portion  is   also   against   arrangements prevailing these  days. In  a  narrative  dialogue,  he  has stated that  Rishi Marich  is stated  to have  said that  ‘O Padma’ only  those who  are initiated inthe Diksha spoken by you have  a right  to do  the worship  of Vishnu. All others have no right in that worship. The worship for others should be performed  by persons  born in  the  best  gotra  of  the Kashyap Muni etc. If the worship for others is done by other Bhagavatars on account of ignorance, there will be much fall of the kings and the country. Therefore, through all efforts one who  is born  in Kashyapa  family duly initiated, though illiterate,  should   be  appointed   as   priest   by   the Bhagavatars. He  who collectivate pure behaviour is the most deserving to perform worship.      The Agamas, thus, are a stream of traditions which have grwon along  with the  tradition of  the Vedas. Many earlier works of  Agama literature are fairly ancient in times. They are not  anti-Vedic but  the worship  of God  in the form of Idol. In  the Vedic  tradition,   a very  limited number  of Brahmins were conversant with the ritualistic lore but under Agama they performed rituals visualizing the Deity whom they invoked by  Mantras. Vedas  deprived others  including women and Sudras of the opportunity to participate in the rituals. But Agamas  provide opportunity to all to perform worship of the God.  Purity, good  conduct, devotion  and dedication is insisted upon. In Mahabhartha, it is ordained thus:      Na Jatir  na Kulam Tat Na Swadhyayo      Na cha  Shrutam Karnane Durjatwasya      Brittameb he Karnam.           "Not by caste, not by ancestry      nor by  scholarship nor by study of      Vedas does  one acquire  the twice-      born status. One acquirs it only by      virtue of his work".      As far  as Vaishvanism  is concerned, the Agamas are of two types  - Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra. While the former is based purely  on Vedic  traditions, the  latter has  Tantric character. Vaikhanasa  and Pancharatra  followers have  been known to  be attacking each other on the ground of acquiring more powers  and  emoluments  in  cash  and  kind  from  the temples. The Vaikhanasa turned to the Pancharatra Agamas for information on  several religious  issues. The Vaishnavas is much indebted  to the  authority of  the Pancharatra Agamas. The Agamas  categorise worship as Svartha, i.e., for self in

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one’s own  home and  Prartha, i.e.,  one  performed  by  the priest for  others in  a temple.  The priests in order to be eligible  have   to  undergo   Diksha,  which  is  described elaborately in  the Agamas.  Some of  the Agamas  state that while worship for oneself can be performed by any oen who is initiated into  the ritual  but the  worship to be performed for others  in a  temple has  to be  by the  priest who  has inherited  authority   of  acting   as  priest   by   family succession. Krishnarcharya  has rationalized  the  synthesis between Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra.      From the  Vaikanasa literature   referred  to above the following prominent features would emerge:      Temples were constructed by private owners or kings. In the respective  Agamas of  either Vaishnava or Saiva form of worship, priests  appointed are  from amongst  the sects who have implicit  faith, devotion,  dedication of a man of good character,  integrity   and  pierty.  He  must  also  be  an accomplished man  to perform  ritual in  ceremonial form  of worship steeped  with profound  knowledge  in  Agama  rules, proficiency  in   recitation  and   performance  of  rituals accurately and  systematically with total identification and personification. The right to work as priest is traceable to an appointment  for life.  The priesthood  was  systematised among the  families of  priests having  faith  and  devotion initiated with Diksha and learning in the respective Agamas. They succeeded from generation to generation subject to good conduct and  were terminable  due  to  acts  of  misconduct. Hereditary succession  is not  an eyorable rule. Due to non- availability of  persons from  the  family  eligible  to  be priest, outsiders  would  also  become  eligible.  Normally, succession to the priesthood upto the lifetime of the priest is open  to his  successors. In some instances, priests from same Gotra  were inducted  and in  their absence,  even  the disciples  of  the  Guru  and  others  were  initiated.  The property dedicated  to the temple or income derived from the offerings of  devotees was enjoyed by the priest for himself and his  family maintenance  and  the  temple.  The  object, thereby, appears  to be  to keep  the priest  above want and free from  family worries  to enable him to dedicate himself totally to  perform daily  rituals to  the Deity. Generally, the person  acquainted with same Agama rules and Sampradaya, practising and  professing same  religious faith and hailing from the  same sect  remained in  the same temple or similar temples elsewhere.      The  protection   of  Articles   25  and   26  of   the Constitution is  not limited  to matters  of doctrine.  They extend also  to acts  done in  furtherance of  religion and, therefore,  they   contain  a   guarantee  for  rituals  and observances, ceremonies  and modes  of  worships  which  are integral parts  of the religion. In Seshammal’s case [supra] on which  great reliance  was placed  and stress was laid by the counsel on either side, this Court while reiterating the importance of  performing rituals in temples for the idol to sustain the  faith of the people, insisted upon the need for performance of  elaborate ritual  ceremonies accompanied  by chanting of  mantras appropriate  to the  Deity. This  Court also recognized  the place  of an  archaka and had held that the pries would occuphplace of importance in the performance of ceremonial  rituals by  a  qualified  archaka  who  would observe daily  discipline imposed  upon him  by  the  Agamas according to  tradition, usage  and customs  obtained in the temple. Sri   P.P. Rao, learned senior counsel also does not dispute it.      The main  controversy is  only of hereditary succession as  an  archaka.  The  question  is:  whether  abolition  of

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hereditary right to perform such service is an integral part of the  religion? Sri  Parasaran contended  that  sine  this Court in first Shirur Math’s case had held that the doctrine of a  particular religion  or  usages  and  practices  would include food  and dress, priest being an inseparable part of the Agamas  without whom the ceremonial temple worship would not start,  archaka becomes  part of idol worship and a part of  religious   practice.  Therefore,   the   abolition   of hereditary right to perform ceremonial worship by the priest would  be  an  affront  to  matters  of  religion  offending Articles 25(1)  and 26(b)  of the Constitution. He contended that in  Seshammal’s case  what was upheld by this Court was the doing away of the line of succession on hereditary basis but not  hereditary right  itself.  This  Court  had  upheld hereditary right as such and given acceptance to legislative sanction to  doing away  with  the  line  of  succession  to hereditary descendant from the same family and gotra. On the other hand,  Sri Rao contended that the office of archaka is not done  away with. Archaka is an important employee of the temple to conduct daily ritual ceremonies in accordance with the Agamas,  customs, practices or Sampradayams prevalent in the concerned  themple. His  service is  akin to that of any other employee  of the  temple. The hereditary right offends Articles 14, 15(1) & (2) and 16(1) of the Constitution.      There is  a distinction  between religious  service and the person  who performs  the service;  performance  of  the religious service  according to  the tenets, Agamas, customs and usages  prevalent in the temple etc. is an integral part of the  religious faith  and belief  and to  that extent the legislature cannot intervene to regulate it. But the service of the  priest (archaka) is a secular part. As seen earlier, the right  to perform  religious service  has appointment by the  owner  of  the  temple  or  king  as  its  source.  The legislature is  competent to  enact the  law taking away the hereditary right  to succeed  to an office in the temple and equally  to   the  office   of  the  priest  (archaka).  The hereditary right  as  such  is  not  integral  part  of  the religious practice  but a source to secure the services of a priest independent  of it.  Though performance of the ritual ceremonies is  an integral  part of the religion, the person who performs  it or  associates himself  with performance of ritual ceremonies,  is not.  Therefore, when  the hereditary right to  perform service  in the temple is terminable by an owner  for   bad  conduct,   its  abolition   by   sovereign legislature is  equally valid  and legal.  Regulation of his service  conditions   is  sequenced   to  the  abolition  of hereditary right  of succession to the office of an archaka. Though an  archaka integrally  associates himself  with  the performance of  ceremonial rituals  and daily  pooja to  the Deity, he  is an holder of the office of priest (archaka) in the temple.  So are the other office-holders or employees of the temple.  In Seshammal’s  case, this Court had upheld the legislative competence  to take away the hereditary right as such.      The real  question, therefore,  is: whether appointment of  an   archaka  is  governed  by  the  usage  and  whether hereditary  succession  is  a  religious  usage?  If  it  is religious  usage,  it  would  fall  squarely  under  Article 25(1)(b) of  the Constitution.  That question  was posed  in Seshamal’s case  wherein this Court considered and held that though archaka  is an acomplished person, well-versed in the Agamas and rituals necessary to be performed in a temple, he does not  have the  status of  a head of the temple. He owes his appointment  to Dharmakarta  or Shebait. He is a servant of the  temple. In  K. Seshadri  Aiyangar v.  Ranga  Bhattar

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[I.L.R. 35  Madras 631], the Madras High Court had held that status of  hereditary archaka  of a  temple  is  that  of  a servant, subject  to the  disciplinary power  of the trustee who would  enquire into  his conduct as servant and would be entitled  to   take  disciplinary  action  against  him  for misconduct.  As   a  servant,  archaka  is  subject  to  the discipline and control of the trustee. The ratio therein was applied and  upheld by this Court and it was held that under Section 56  of the  Madras Act  archaka is  the holder of an office attached  to a  religious institution and he receives emoluments and  perks according  to t  he procedure therein. This Court  had further held that the act of his appointment is essentially  a secular  act. He owes his appointment to a secular authority.  Any lay  founder of a temple may appoint an archaka.  The Shebait  or  Manager  of  temple  exercises essentially a  secular function  in choosing  and appointing the archaka.  Continuance of an archaka by succession to the office from  generation to  generation  does  not  make  any difference  to   the  principle   of  appointment.  No  such hereditary archaka can claim any right to the office. Though after appointment  the archaka  performs worship,  it is  no ground to  hold that  the appointment  is  either  religious practice or  a matter  of religion.  It would  thus be clear that  though   archaka  is   normally  a   well-versed   and accomplished person  in the  Agamas and rituals necessary to be performed  in a  temple, he is the holder of an office in the temple.  He is  subject to  the disciplinary  power of a trustee  or  an  appropriate  authority  prescribed  in  the regulations or rules or the Act. He owes his existence to an order of  appointment - be it in writing or otherwise. He is subject to  the discipline  at par with other members of the establishment. Though after appointment, as an integral part of the daily rituals, he performs worship in accordance with the Agamas  Sastras, it  is  no  ground  to  hold  that  his appointment is  either a  religious practice  or a matter of religion. It  is not an essential part of religion or matter of religion  or religious  practice. Therefore, abolition of the hereditary  right to appointment under Section 34 is not violative  of   either  article   25(1)  or   26(b)  of  the Constitution.      It is  true that  the position  of the  office of Pedda Jeeyanagar or  Chinna Jeayanagar  as a religious head in the context of  matadhipathi of  Ramanuja sect was upheld by the Privy  Council,  yet  as  regards  his  right  in  the  Lord Venkataramana temple,  he performs  the office  as a nominee and, therefore, he also owes his existence to the nomination which  is   antithesis  to   hereditary  succession.   Every Mirasidar or  Gamekar equally  cannot claim hereditary right to  continue  to  perform  the  duties  from  generation  to generation.  They   all  are  servants  or  members  of  the establishment   liable    to   disciplinary    jurisdiction. Consequently, they  stand along with the priest (archaka) of the temple  of Sri Balaji. It is true that hereditary rights of archaka  or other  office-holders are in vogue in most of the State  Acts and  no attempt therein appears to have been made to  abolish them,  yet their  inaction or  omission  to amend the  law is  no ground  to hold  that the  legislature lacks the  power to  do so  or that they are in violation of the Constitution.  In fact,  it is not the submission of Sri Parasaran that  the legislature  lacked competence  to enact Sections 34  and 144 of the Act. Therefore, the abolition of their rights  do not violate either Article 25 (1) or 26 (b) of the Constitution.      The  next   question  is:   whether  abolition  of  the emoluments attached  to the  office is  invalid in law? Shri

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Parasaran has  forcefully and  with vehemence at his command repeatedly argued  that appointment  of archaka and right to receive emoluments  or share in the offerings is an integral usage  and   practice  prevalent  in  Makras  Province  from centuries. In  Seshammal’s case,  the usage was not an issue since the  hereditary right  or usage  or practice  was  not avoided in  the Madras  Act. Section 34(1) (b) has done away with  the   appointment  on   usage  or   custom;  when  the appointment is  on the  basis  of  usage  and  custom  which acquired the  status of  law and  is  a  part  of  religious practice, Section  34(1)(b) is unconstituttional. It is true that in  Seshammal’s case  the issues whether appointment of an archaka  should made  on the  basis of  custom  or  usage prevalent in  an institution  or whether such appointment is in contravention  of  Article  25  [1]  or  26  [b]  of  the Constitution were  not directly  addressed. So  long as  the statute did not intervene regulating the secular appointment of an archaka, the appointment according to prevailing usage or custom  was upheld by the courts. Consequently, the right to succession  or appointment  remained valid.  But with the statutory intervention,  unless the  custom or usage is held an integral  part of the religion, the legislature has power to regulate  the appointment  of an archaka or other office- holder. In  view of  the settled  legal  position  that  the appointment of  an archaka  is a  secular act,  the previous custom or  practice or usage in making an appointment to the office of  an archaka  is regulated  under the  Act.  As  an object in  that behalf  the hereditary  right or  custom  or usage, pervalent in that behalf, was statutorily abolished.      In Gazula Dasaratha Rama Rao v. State of Andhra Pradesh & Ors.  [AIR 1961  SC 564]  the question  arose: whether the hereditary right to hold office of village Munsiff under the Madras  Hereditary   Village  Offices   Act,   1895      was constitutionally valid?  A Constitution  Bench of this Court held that  the appointment  on grounds of ‘descent’ violates the fundamental  right under  Articles 14,  15 and 16 [1] of the  Constitution.   In  that   context,   after   elaborate consideration, the  Court had  held that  what goes with the office is  its emoluments  - whether  in the  shape of land, assignment of  revenue, agricultural  produce, money, salary or any  other kind  of   remuneration. They  are granted  or continued in  respect of  or annexed  to the  office by  the State. Apart  from the  office, there  is no  right  to  the emoluments. In  other words,  when a  person is appointed as Village Munsiff,  it is  an appointment to the office by the State to be remunerated either by use of land or by money or salary etc.  When the emoluments consisted of land, the land did not  become the  family property of the person appointed to the  office whether  by virtue  of an hereditary claim to the office  or otherwise. It was an appendage to the office, inalienable by  the office-holder  and designed  to  be  the emoluments of  the officer  into the  hands of whosoever the office might pass. It does not take out from the purview the office under  clauses [1]  and [2]  of  Article  16  of  the Constitution. An  office has  its emoluments and it would be wrong to  hold that  though office  is an  office under  the State, it is not within the ambit of Article 16 to take away the emoluments  attached to the office, because prior to the Constitution the  law recognized a custom by which there was a preferential  right to  the office  in the  members  of  a particular family.  The customary  pre-existing right of the family to  the property  in the  shape of  emoluments of the office is  not independent of or irrespective of the office. There was  no pre-existing  right apart  from the office. It was  accordingly  held  that  appointment  on  principle  of

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descent was  violative of  Article 16  [1] and  [2]  of  the Constitution.      It deserves  to be  noted that  Section 13  contains an injunction to  the officer mentioned therein and every other person exercising  the power  or  performing  the  functions under the  Act that  they shall not interfere with and shall observe  the   forum,  usages,   ceremonies  and   practices obtaining in and appropriate to the religious institution or endowment in  respect of  which such powers are exercised or functions are  performed. In  Shirur Math’s  case this Court had  upheld   similar  State   action  where  the  offending provision was  in  conformity  with  the  rules,  practices, usages or  customs of  the Math in dealing with the right of the head  of the  Math. Similarly,  Section   142  preserves continuance of  existing customs  etc. by a savings class as under:      "Savings:-  Nothing   in  this  Act      shall -      (a)  affect any honour to which any      person is  entitled by  custom, the      performance of or interference with      the religious  worship,  ceremonies      and     poojas     in     religious      institutions   according   to   the      sampradayams and  Agams followed in      such institutions. or (b) authorise      any interference with the religious      or spiritual  functions of the head      of a  math including those relating      to  the   imparting  of   religious      spiritual service." A conjoint  reading thereof  preserves the existing customs, performances,  religious  worships,  ceremonies  and  poojas according  to  Sampradayams  and  Agamas  followed  in  such institutions.  Section  142  issues  an  injunction  against officer from interfering with such observances. Yet it would not, by  operation thereof,  amount to  revival of which has been expressly  abolished under Section 34(1)(b) of the Act. Abolition of  hereditary principle on the basis of custom or usage to  a holder  of an  office for  continuance  in  that office  is   one  facet,   and  performance  of  ceremonies, practices, customs  of usages  is another.  Both  cannot  be mingied in  the same  water. Both  are distinct  and separte from each  other. It  would, therefore,  be  incongruous  to accept the  contention of  petitioners  that  the  right  to continuance in  office on  the basis  of  custom  and  usage independently  survives.  The  further  contention  is  that interference with  matters based on custom or usage relating to ‘religious  institution’  as  defined  in  Section  2(23) amounts to  interference with  the freedom of conscience and free practice  of religion.  Therefore, it  is violative  of Article 25(1)  and is  untenable in  law. As  held  earlier, being secular  actions they  are not  integral part  of  the religion or religious matters.      It is  next contended  that as  per rules  laid down in Agmas, the  archaka  of  particular  denomination  alone  is entitled to  enter sanctum  sanctorum and touch the image of God. A  touch by  a person of different denomination defiles the image  of God.  Therefore,  persons  belonging  to  that particular family,  sect or  denomination alone are entitled to perform  pooja or ceremonial rituals of daily worship and that  the   abolition  of   hereditary  right   amounts   to interference with  the religion offending Article 25(1). Ex- facie the  argument being  attractive, we  had put a pointed question to Shri Parasaran that when with the advancement of

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education and  the liberty  of a  person to  pursue  liberal higher education  of his  choice to  improve his excellence, persons born  in a  particular sect  or denomination acquire liberal education  and migrate,  as is  usual, to  a foreign country and  settle themselves  in profitable avocation, and no other  person from  that particular family, sect/sub-sect or   denomination    having   knowledge,   proficiency   and accomplishment  is  available,  what  would  happen  to  the preference  of   rituals  in  that  particular  temple.  The counsel, after  due consideration,  was frank to submit that in that eventuality the management of the institution has to seek a  suitable person  from outside  the family, sect/sub- sect or  denomination. With  increased modern facilities for liberal   higher    education   and   learning   and   ample opportunities to  improve excellence  to   seek advantageous avocation, a  child in traditional Vedic family may not fall in line  with father  to practise his archakatwam, avocation or services  and no  one can compel him to do so. Therefore, what would  be relevant  is not that the candidate who seeks to serve  as an  archaka must  be from that family etc., but must be  an accomplished  person in Agama rules having faith and devotion in that form of worship and also proficiency to perform rituals and rites, ceremonial rituals appropriate to the temple  according to  its customs,  usages, Sampradayams etc. In  other words,  the faith and belief in the religion, customs, usages  or Sampradayams  in that  particular Agamas and proficiency  in performance  of the rituals to the image of God  in those particular rituals are conditions precedent to be  eligible to  hold office  of  the  archaka.  One  who fulfils those  pre-conditions is  eligible to  be considered and appointed  to the  office of  archaka or  other  similar offices. The regulation of this secular activity, therefore, does not  offend any  faith or  belief in the performance of those duties  by a  person other  than one  hailing from the family, sect/sub-sect  or denomination  hither to performing the  same.  Earlier,  the  field  of  choice  to  appoint  a particular archaka  was confined and limited to that family, sect/sub-sect  or  denomination,  but  after  the  statutory regulation the  field of  choice is widened and all eligible candidates including  those available  from the  family etc. will be  considered; competency  is tested  and when  one is found qualified,  appointment  is  made  to  the  office  of archaka  according   to  the   prescribed   procedure.   We, therefore, hold that abolition of hereditary principle under Section 34 is not violative of either Article 25(1) or 26(b) of the Constitution.      It  is   next  contended   that  there  are  no  proper guidelines in  the  Act  to  exercise  the  power  and  wide discretionary been conferred on secular authority, i.e., the Commissioner to  decide as to who should be appointed to the offices  abolished  under  Section  34.  The  State  has  no jurisdiction  either   to  exercise  adjudicatory  power  or legislative  power   in  matters   relating  to  freedom  of conscience. We  find no  force  in  the  contention.  It  is settled law  that existence  of rules is not a condition for the Act  to become  operative.  The  rules  made  under  the predecessor  Act  17  of  1966  are  in  vogue.  Section  35 prescribes procedure  for appointment  of office-holders and servants. Section  36 prescribes  qualifications. Section 37 regulates disciplinary  conduct. The rules have been made in exercise of  the power under Section 155 to supplement these provisions. Three  schools  to  impart  education  in  Agama Sastras etc.  are established  one each in Andhra, Telangana and Rayaiseema  regions. Vide  GOMS 2920  dated December 19, 1958  Board   of  Examiners   from  Specialist  Pandits  was

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constituted to  impart training and conduct examinations and papers were  set out  on each  subject; GOMS  No.1252  dated November 30,  1971 prescribes  rules to conduct examinations in Agamas;  Vide  GOMS  No.1051  dated  September  20,  1976 Advisory Board,  consisting of  eminent Pandits  in  several Agama specialities,  was constituted to regulate examination system. Thus,  apart from  the provisions  in the Act, there are rules  which elaborately provide for training facilities and conducting  examinations in  the prescribed  manner. The Act, therefore,  is not  arbitrary. The proceduce prescribed therefor is neither vague nor arbitrary.      Yet another serious contention of Sri Parasaran is that the archaka and other office-holders have a right to a share in  the  Prasadam  offered  to  the    Lord.  It  cannot  be characterised either  as an  economic, political  or secular activity associated with religious practice. Food offered to God becomes  Prasadam. The devotee as well as office-holders are eligible  and entitled  to a  share in the Prasadam. The archakas are  entitled to  remuneration from the worshippers for services  rendered to the worshippers. For instance, 1/2 of each broken coconut is offered to the Deity as Neyvedyam. Similarly, in Anjitasawas, worshippers make payment for such services. Devasthanams/temple charges fee from devotees, and from it  archakas are entitled to their share as they render services  to  the  Deity.  They  are  entitled  to  separate remuneration for the services they render to the worshipper. The denial  thereof, therefore,  is unconstitutional, unjust and unfair.  He placed  strong reliance on a decision of the Madras  High   Court  in   Tirumalai  Tiripati   Devasthanam Committee,  by  its  Commissioner  v.  Archakam  Seshachalam Dikshithulu &  2 Ors.  [1990 (1)  LW  34  at  37  -  Journal Section]. Shri  Rao resisted  the contention and pointed out that the  archaka and other mirasiders had under a contrsact certain percentage  of shares  in the  offerings to the Lord Venkteshwaraswamy. The  statute has  nullified the  contract and introduced  principle of  payment of salary for services rendered. Prasadam  is actually  offered to  the Lord at the time of  worship and  a part  thereof is  given for personal consumption. The  archaka or  other service  holders have no right to  a share  in other collections. The decision of the Madras High  Court has  no application  to the facts of this case.      Having given our anxious consideation to the pespective contentions,  we   find  that  there  is  no  force  in  the contentions of  Sri Parasaram.  Lord Venkteswaraswamy Temple of TTD  has its centuries old history. It had its golry with the patronage  of Cholla  Kings, Pallava Kings, Vijayanagara Kings who  donated large tracks of lands for its maintenance and upkeep.  Equally, it supported the plunder by the French invaders and  British empire  who used its income as part of public exchequer. It has regained its resplendent glory with immense  faith   and  devotion   the  people  have  in  Lord Venkteswaraswamy who  visit daily in lacs, wait in queue for a day  for darshan  for a  few seconds. Its income grew from voluntary offerings  in Hundi  and sale  of Prasadams (food) and Laddus  (Sweet-meat). Its  administration and management is a  systematised feature.  The Act and the predecessor Act 17 of 1966 regulated the same in providing every facility to the  pilgrims   and   devotees   and   cared   to   minimise inconvenience  to   devotees  during   darshan-stay  in  the precincts or  outside-wait at  Thirumalai and  at  Tirupathi down the  hills. Chapter  VIX of  the Act  exclusively deals with   the management  of TTD.  It is  seen that  so long as hereditary archakas,  mirasidars or office-holders had their hereditary right,  as a part of their rendering service they

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were entitled  to a  share in  the Prasadam  or  collections offered to   the  presiding Deity  or other  Deities of  the temple  as  per  the  custom  or  usage  prevailing  in  the particular temple  or agreement  between the  management and the  office-holders.   But  on   abolition  thereof,   as  a corollary, the  right to  a share  in coliections,  Prasadam etc. also  ceased to operate and also stood abolished. Apart from the hereditary right, they have no independent right to a share  in the offerings etc. Therefore, with the abolition of the  hereditary right,  the right  to  receive  customary payment associated  with an  office equally  stood abolished under Section  144. Section  144 is consequential to Section 34 and  other similar  rights like  Section 16  of the  Act. Resultantly, the  right to  receive a  share in the Prasadam etc. stood  abolished. Holder  of an  office is  entitled to payment of  salary prescribed  under the  rules for services rendered by  an archaka  etc.   Consequently, the right to a share by  customary pactices  or usages  or under a contract with management  also stood abolished. They are regulated by making payment  of the  monthly salary  to the  holder of an office in  accordance with  the scales  prescribed under the rules made thereunder. The Division Bench of the Madras High Court had  gone into  the question prior to the abolition of the rights.  Therefore, principle  laid  therein  no  longer operates in  view of  the statutory interposition abolishing those entitlements.      The gamekars  (who prepare  food items  offered to  God including Laddus) are species of mirasidars doing service to Lord Deity  on hereditary principle. Though they perform the duty of perparing food etc. according to Agama prescription, usages and practices obtaining in each temple, their rightsd being founded  on hereditary principle stood abolished. This abolition, in  respect of  archaka and other service holders having already  been upheld,  the case  of  gamekars  cannot independently  stand   on  any  higher  footing.  Therefore, abolition of  their rights  under Sections  34  and  144  is equally valid in law.      It  was   next  contended   that  prescription  of  the qualifications to  the  archaka  is  arbitrary,  unjust  and unfair. We  find no force in the contention. It is true that prior to  the Act  came into  force, the  succession to  the office was based on hereditary principles. But Section 37 of the predecessor  Act 17 of 1966 prescribes qualifications of archaka which  are in  pari materia with those prescribed in Section 36  of the  Act. It is common knowledge that many an archaka are  not highly  educated but have working knowledge in  the  performance  of  ritual  and  daily  pooja  to  the presiding Deity of the temple and other Deities installed in the temple.  To obviate  deficiency in learning etc.. A gams training schools  in the  respective regions,  viz., Andhra, Telengana and  Rayalseema were  established and  training in fact is  imparted to the canndidates. The recognition of the qualifications by the Commissioner is one of the conditions, but we  have seen  the rules  made  in  this  behalf.  Rules provide  elaborate   procedure.  Competent  epersons  having specialised knowledge  in the  respective subjects  set  the question papers  and evaluation  thereof is  done by equally competent persons on the subjects. As regards the recitation and  clarity   of  pronunciation   of  Vedic   mantras,  the candidates are adjudged by the expert persons well-versed in Vedic mantras  and Agama sastras. A pandit in that branch of speciality  is  in  service  of  the  department.  With  his assistance and  of other  persons,  the  Commissioner  would adjudge  the   suitability  of  the  respective  candidates. Similarly, the word ‘Sapthavyanams’, i.e., seven bad habits,

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has been clarified in the Explanation of Appendix to Section 36. Therefore,  the authority  would have  no difficulty  in adjudging whather  a candidate  is free from seven voices or any of  them. If there is any error of judgment or denial of appointment on  that basis in any individual case that would be a  matter for  consideration in an appropriate forum. The provisions, therefore, are not arbitrary, unjust or unfair.      Yet another serious contention of Sri Parasaran is that the power  of  transfer  under  Section  39  is  within  the grinding teeth  of Article 25 (1) of the Constitution. It is his contention  that each temple has its own rules laid down by Agamas,  practices and  customs prevalent in that temple; archakas will  have special  knowledge  of  working  in  the temple;  an   archaka  transferred   to  another  temple  or transferee-substitute  bereft   of  that   knowledge   inthe performance of  rituals defile  the image  of the  presiding Deity, leading  to  serious  repercussions  and,  therefore, Section 39 is ultra vires the Constitution. We find no force in the  contention. It  is seen  that Sections  13 and  142, which have  already been adverted to, would take care of the apprehended catastrophe.  On mere  apprehension, Section  39 cannot be  declared to  be ultra vires. If in any individual case any  transfer was  effected of  a  person  who  had  no accomplishment  of   Agamic  rules,  customs,  practices  or sampradayams applicable  to that particular temple, it would be considered  and dealt  with  accordingly.  It  cannot  be expected  that  the  Commissioner  would  act  in  violation thereof and would act in a way inconsistent with Sections 13 and 142. Each case would be considered on its own merits and correctness  of   such  transfer   would  be  tested  in  an appropriate proceedings.  Therefore, on  that  score  alone, Section 39  cannot be  declared arbitrary  or ultra vires or unjust.      In Andhra  Pradesh there  are as many as 32,201 temples out which  7761 temples  are  assessible  institutions;  the remaining 24,440  temples  have  income  of  less  than  Rs. 1,000/- per  annum, only 582 out of them have income of more than Rs.10,000/-  per annum.  Only  around  8  temples  have income of  more  than  Rs.20,00,000/-  per  annum.  All  the archakas or  employees in  these  categories of 24,440 small temples would  be deprived  of their livelihood by abolition of their hereditary rights and introduction of graded scales of pay.  This information  has been furnished in the written arguments submitted  by Shri  Markandya but  we did not have the occasion  to have  them   verified during  the course of hearing. It  would be seen that the principles in fixing the scales of  pay and method of payment of salary introduced by the rules are required to be adjudged. In the absence of any material it  is difficult for us to give any finding in that behalf. Suffice  to stated  that liberty  is given  to place those necessary  and material evidence before the Government which would  constitute a  Committee  consisting  of  Deputy Secretary,  Finance   Department.  Joint  Secretary  to  the Government,  Revenue   (Endowment  Department)   and   Joint Commissioner, Endowment  Department. The  Committee would go in   the question  to rationalize  the pay-scales of all the archakas in  different temples  and the modality for payment of salary  to them. After approval of the rules by the State Government, the respondents should place the same before the Court for further approval.      Though we  have upheld abolition of hereditary right to appointment as  an  archaka  or  other  office-holders,  the evidence  from  Vaikhanasa  literature  and  other  material indicate that  archaka should bestow his total dedication to the Deity  in the  performance of daily rituals; at the same

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time, he  and his  family   members must be kept in comfort. The property  endowed for his services or the income derived from the  offerings or  the payment  of salary,  if any,  is identified as  a source for his living in comfort. The State exercising  its   secular  power  regulates  appointment  of archakas, as  upheld hereinbefore;  equally, he,  along with his family,  is required  to be  kept with  daily comfort so that he  would continue  to dedicate  himself to perform the ritual worship of the Deity. As indicated earlier, the State is required  to determine  his service  conditions, scale of pay and  other emoluments  according to  the  grade  of  the temple in  which he works and to regulate the period of duty and of  service. That  apart, welfare  measures in  addition should be  initiated as  a measure  of social welfare to the archakas and  other employees  of  the  temple  and  pandits working in  the temples  and under  the supervision  of  the Commissioner. Therefore,  the State should come forward with a scheme  to provide the archakas, other employees and their family members like suitable accommodation, education by way of refresher courses and courses in Agamas in the respective region, medical  facilities, educational facilities to their children, loans  for construction  of their  own houses, and wherever accommodation  in the  temple is  available letting the same to them on reasonable rent, group insurance scheme, unforeseen     contingencies  like   accident,  death  etc., rehabilitation of  the widow or educated unemployed youth or such other  measures as  may   be  incidental  and  part  of economic welfare.  The  extent  of  the  similar  facilities already existing  and provided  for may  be excluded  from c scheme.  For   other  items  appropriate  scheme  should  be formulated.      In that  behalf the  State Government  is  directed  to constitute  a   Committee  consisting   of  the   Additional Commissioner,     Endowments     Department,     a     Joint Secretary/Deputy Secretary  [Endowment] Revenue  Department; two representatives of the archakas to be nominated by their associations    and     one    representative    of    other officer/servants of  the temples.  It would  be open  to the representatives of  the archakas  etc. to  place their views and material  before the Committee in the formulation of the scheme. The  Committee will  undertake an indepth study into the schemes  and formulate  the same.   After  the scheme is formulated, the Government would take a decision thereon and would place  the duly  approved  scheme  before  this  Court within six months from today for further action thereon.      We are  of the  view that  to  effectuate  the  scheme, tentatively a consolidated fund of Rs.75 crores would be set up  as   corpus  and  procedure  would  be  evolved  by  the Government  as  to  in  which  nationalize  Bank  or  income yielding Government  Securities the same would be deposited; as to who would operate and disburse the income accrued from the fund  from time to time. Subject to further revision, if any, in  the above consolidated fund, the TTD is directed to deposit a  sum of  Rs.20 crores  into the  fund  during  the financial year  1996-97 by  end of June 1996. Each financial year, a  sum of Rs.10 crores be deposited till the corpus of Rs.75 crores  is reached. The Government is also directed to call upon  other major  temple like  Narasimhaswamy  temple. Yadagirigutta; Sri Malikarjunaswamy temple, Karimnagar; Ugra Narasimhaswamy   temple,   Visakhaptam;   Satyanarayanaswamy temple. Annavaram;  and  Kanakaduragmba  temple,  Vijayawada etc.  with   annual  income  of  Rs.20  lakhs  or  more,  to contribute to  the said  fund of Rs.75 crores. These temples may deposit  the amount  in annual instalments spread over a period not  exceeding five  years. During the financial year

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1996-97, a  sum of  Rs.5 crores  by each of the major temple may be  directed to  be deposited  and  in  subsequent  four years, a  sum of Rs.1 crore every year may be directed to be deposited. In  case of  any difficulty, the Government would be at  liberty to seek from this Court further directions or clarification or  modification in that behalf. It would also be open  to the  Government to  seek  donations  from  other charitable institutions  within  or  outside  the  State  of Andhra Pradesh  or  from  non-resident  Indians.  The  State Government would also approach the Income-Tax Department and the Government  of India  to exempt  from the income-tax the said donations  as well  as the  income derived  by  way  of interest or  otherwise on  the corpus  of or further amounts deposited in the Fund.      When the  matter had come up for admission, on June 22, 1987, this Court had directed status quo as to the rights of the hereditary  archakas, trustees  and mirasidars as on the date the  Act had  come into  force. This  Court had further directed that  the archakas,  trustees and mirasidars "shall keep an  account of the offerings, both in cash and in kind, and the  value thereof  as may  be taken  by the  hereditary archakas, trustees, mirasidars as their remuneration, salary and perquisites  as used  to be  taken by  them  immediately before the  commencement of  the Act  and submit the same to the Executive  Officer or  to the  Commissioner of Religious Endowments, as  the case  may every month by the 15th day of the next  succeeding month. The first of such accounts shall be submitted  by 15th  July, 1987  for the  month  of  June, 1987". On  October 13,  1987, the said order was modified to the extent  of archakas  receiving more  than Rs.10,000/- as monthly emoluments.  Direction was given to furnish security either by  way  of  bank  guarantee  or  immovable  property security as  ordered for  archakas and  gamakars in the main case. By  further order  dated August 25, 1987, an order was made to  protect the  interests of  the TTD  and two working groups, viz., archakas and gamekars thus:      "Therefore,    as     an    interim      arrangement we direct that archakas      shall   furnish    a   consolidated      security of  Rs.20,00,000/- [Rupees      twenty lakhs] either by way of bank      guarantee or  by  way  of  property      security to the satisfaction of the      Additional District Judge. Tirupati      within four weeks hence. Similarly,      the other  group who is incharge of      preparing  prasadams  will  furnish      either bank  guarantee or  property      security to the satisfaction of the      same Additional  District Judge  of      Tirupati of  Rs.20,00,000/- [Rupees      Twenty  lakhs]   within  the   same      period. This  amount has been fixed      taking   into   consideration   the      possibility  of   this  case  being      disposed of by this Court in course      of 1988." Though liberty was given to obtain further directions if the cases would  not be  disposed of by the year 1988, we do not find   that any further directions were given by this Court. This Court  had reiterated  the interim direction dated June 22, 1987 referred to hereinabove.      In view  of the  fact that  writ petitions and transfer cases are  being disposed  of,  it  would  be  open  to  the Executive Officer  of TTD etc. to work out the payments made

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to the  archakas, mirasidars  and gamekare etc. and also the rights  consistent  with  the  law  and  would  take  action accordingly.      The writ petitions and the transfer cases are dismissed subject to the above directions. In the circumstances of the case, however,  the parties  are directed  to bear their own costs.